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on the improvement of the understanding(提高阅读能力)-第9部分

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different from the laws of the understanding; and that the mind is entirely 

passive with regard to them。 

     '87'    (1) Whence we may also see how easily men may fall into grave 

errors through not distinguishing accurately between the imagination and 

the understanding; such as believing that extension must be localized; that 

it must be finite; that its parts are really distinct one from the other; that it 

is the   primary  and   single   foundation   of   all   things;   that   it   occupies   more 

space at one time than at another and other similar doctrines; all entirely 

opposed to truth; as we shall duly show。 

     '88' (1) Again; since words are a part of the imagination … that is; since 

we form many conceptions in accordance with confused arrangements of 

words in the memory; dependent on particular bodily conditions; … there is 

no   doubt   that   words   may;   equally  with   the   imagination;   be   the   cause   of 

many and great errors; unless we            strictly on our guard。 

     '89' (1) Moreover; words are formed according to popular fancy and 

intelligence;      and   are;   therefore;    signs    of   things   as   existing    in   the 

imagination;   not   as   existing   in   the   understanding。       (2)   This   is   evident 

from the fact that to all such things as exist only in the understanding; not 

in the imagination;  negative names   are   often given;  such   as   incorporeal; 

infinite;    &c。    (3)    So;   also;   many    conceptions      really   affirmative     are 

expressed      negatively;     and   vice   versa;   such    as   uncreate;    independent; 

infinite; immortal; &c。; inasmuch as their contraries are much more easily 

imagined;      and;   therefore;    occurred     first  to  men;   and   usurped     positive 

names。   (89:4)   Many   things   we   affirm   and   deny;   because   the   nature   of 

words allows us to do so; though the nature of things does not。                   (5) While 

we remain unaware of this fact; we may easily mistake falsehood for truth。 

     '90' (1) Let us also beware of another great cause of confusion; which 

prevents the understanding from reflecting on itself。 (2) Sometimes; while 

making no distinction between the imagination and the intellect; we think 

that what we more readily imagine is clearer to us; and also we think that 

what we imagine we understand。 (3) Thus; we put first that which should 

be    last:  the  true   order   of   progression     is  reversed;    and   no   legitimate 

conclusion is drawn。 

     '91'    '91e' (1) Now; in order at length to pass on to the second part of 



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this method; I shall first set forth the object aimed at; and next the means 

for its attainment。        (2) The object aimed at is the acquisition of clear and 

distinct   ideas;   such   as   are   produced   by   the   pure   intellect;   and   not   by 

chance   physical   motions。   (3)   In   order   that   all   ideas   may   be   reduced   to 

unity; we shall endeavor so to associate and arrange them that our mind 

may; as far as possible; reflect subjectively the reality of nature; both as a 

whole and as parts。 

     '92' (1) As for the first point; it is necessary (as we have said) for our 

purpose   that   everything   should   be   conceived;   either   solely   through   its 

essence; or through its proximate cause。                (2) If the thing be self…existent; 

or; as is commonly said; the cause of itself; it must be understood through 

its   essence   only;   if   it   be   not   self…existent;   but   requires   a   cause   for   its 

existence; it must be understood through its proximate cause。                       (3) For; in 

reality;    the   knowledge;       '92f'    of   an   effect   is   nothing     else   than    the 

acquisition of more perfect knowledge of its cause。 

     '93'    (1)   Therefore;      we   may     never;   while    we    are   concerned      with 

inquiries   into   actual   things;   draw   any   conclusion   from   abstractions;   we 

shall    be   extremely   careful      not   to  confound      that   which    is  only   in   the 

understanding with that which is in the thing itself。 (2) The best basis for 

drawing a conclusion will be either some particular affirmative essence; or 

a   true   and   legitimate     definition。     (93:3)    For   the   understanding       cannot 

descend   from  universal   axioms   by  themselves   to   particular   things;   since 

axioms are of infinite extent; and do not determine the understanding   to 

contemplate one particular thing more than another。 

     '94' (1) Thus the true method of discovery is to form thoughts from 

some given definition。           (2) This process will be the more fruitful and easy 

in   proportion   as   the   thing   given   be   better   defined。     (3)   Wherefore;   the 

cardinal point of all this second part of method consists in the knowledge 

of the conditions of good definition; and the means of finding them。                        (4) I 

will first treat of the conditions of definition。 

     '95'     (1) A  definition;   if   it   is   to   be   called   perfect;   must   explain   the 

inmost essence of a thing; and must take care not to substitute for this any 

of its properties。       (2) In order to illustrate my meaning; without taking an 

example   which   would   seem   to   show   a   desire   to   expose   other   people's 



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errors; I will choose the case of something abstract; the definition of which 

is of little moment。         (95:3) Such is a circle。         (4) If a circle be defined as 

a    figure;   such    that   all   straight    lines   drawn     from     the   center    to  the 

circumference are equal; every one can see that such a definition does not 

in the least explain the essence of a circle; but solely one of its properties。 

(5) Though; as I have said; this is of no importance in the case of figures 

and   other   abstractions;   it   is   of   great   importance   in   the   case   of   physical 

beings and realities: for the properties of things are not understood so long 

as   their   essences   are   unknown。   (6)   If   the   latter   be   passed   over;   there   is 

necessarily a perversion of the succession of ideas which should reflect the 

succession of nature; and we go far astray from our object。 

     '96'     In order to be free from this fault; the following rules should be 

observed   in   definition:…   I。      (1)   If   the   thing   in   question   be   created;   the 

definition         must   (as   we   have   said)   comprehend   the   proximate   cause。 

(2) For instance; a circle should; according to this rule;                       be defined as 

follows: the figure described by any line                   whereof one end is fixed and 

the other free。       (3) This         definition clearly comprehends the proximate 

cause。     II。  (4)    A   conception      or  definition     of  a   thing   should     be  such 

that   all   the   properties   of   that   thing;   in   so   far   as   it   is considered   by 

itself; and not in conjunction with other                 things; can be deduced from it; 

as   may   be   seen   in   the       definition   given   of   a   circle:   for   from   that   it 

clearly   follows          that   all   straight   lines   drawn   from   the   center   to   the 

circumference are equal。            (5) That this is a necessary             characteristic of 

a definition is so clear to anyone; who                  reflects on the matter; that there 

is no need to spend time                in proving it; or in showing that; owing to 

this   second         condition;   every   definition   should   be   affirmative。          (6)   I 

speak      of   intellectual    affirmation;      giving    little  thought     to        verbal 

affirmations        which;     owing      to   the   poverty     of    language;            must 

sometimes;        perhaps;      be   expressed       negatively;     though            the    idea 

contained is affirmative。 

     '97'      The     rules   for   the   definition     of  an   uncreated      thing    are   as 

follows:      I。  The     exclusion     of   all  idea   of   cause    …  that  is;  the   thing 

must     not   need    explanation       by   Anything      outside    itself。   II。  When     the 

definition   of   the   thing   has   been   given;   there   must           be   no   room   for 



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doubt as to whether the thing exists or not。 III。 It must contain; as far as 

the   mind   is   concerned;   no         substantives   which   could   be   put   into   an 

adjectival      form;        in    other   words;     the   object   defined     must    not   be 

explained             through      abstractions。      IV。   Lastly;    though      this   is  not 

absolutely      necessary;      it  should         be     possible    to   deduce     from    the 

definition      all  the  properties         of    the   thing   defined。     All  these    rules 

become obvious to anyone giving strict attention to the matter。 

     '98'      (1)   I   have    also   stated    that   the   best   basis   for   drawing      a 

conclusion is a particular affirmative essence。                 (2) The more specialized 

the idea is; the more it is distinct; and therefore clear
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