on sophistical refutations-第14部分

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contentious　arguments；　on　the　other　hand；　the　most　incisive　is　the　one



which；　in　the　first　place；　is　characterized　by　an　initial



uncertainty　whether　it　has　been　properly　reasoned　or　not；　and　also



whether　the　solution　depends　on　a　false　premiss　or　on　the　drawing　of　a



distinction；　while；　of　the　rest；　the　second　place　is　held　by　that



whose　solution　clearly　depends　upon　a　distinction　or　a　demolition；　and



yet　it　does　not　reveal　clearly　which　it　is　of　the　premisses　asked；



whose　demolition；　or　the　drawing　of　a　distinction　within　it；　will



bring　the　solution　about；　but　even　leaves　it　vague　whether　it　is　on



the　conclusion　or　on　one　of　the　premisses　that　the　deception　depends。



　　Now　sometimes　an　argument　which　has　not　been　properly　reasoned　is



silly；　supposing　the　assumptions　required　to　be　extremely　contrary



to　the　general　view　or　false；　but　sometimes　it　ought　not　to　be　held　in



contempt。　For　whenever　some　question　is　left　out；　of　the　kind　that



concerns　both　the　subject　and　the　nerve　of　the　argument；　the　reasoning



that　has　both　failed　to　secure　this　as　well；　and　also　failed　to　reason



properly；　is　silly；　but　when　what　is　omitted　is　some　extraneous



question；　then　it　is　by　no　means　to　be　lightly　despised；　but　the



argument　is　quite　respectable；　though　the　questioner　has　not　put　his



questions　well。



　　Just　as　it　is　possible　to　bring　a　solution　sometimes　against　the



argument；　at　others　against　the　questioner　and　his　mode　of



questioning；　and　at　others　against　neither　of　these；　likewise　also



it　is　possible　to　marshal　one's　questions　and　reasoning　both　against



the　thesis；　and　against　the　answerer　and　against　the　time；　whenever



the　solution　requires　a　longer　time　to　examine　than　the　period



available。







　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　34







　　As　to　the　number；　then；　and　kind　of　sources　whence　fallacies　arise



in　discussion；　and　how　we　are　to　show　that　our　opponent　is



committing　a　fallacy　and　make　him　utter　paradoxes；　moreover；　by　the



use　of　what　materials　solescism　is　brought　about；　and　how　to



question　and　what　is　the　way　to　arrange　the　questions；　moreover；　as　to



the　question　what　use　is　served　by　all　arguments　of　this　kind；　and



concerning　the　answerer's　part；　both　as　a　whole　in　general；　and　in



particular　how　to　solve　arguments　and　solecisms…on　all　these　things



let　the　foregoing　discussion　suffice。　It　remains　to　recall　our



original　proposal　and　to　bring　our　discussion　to　a　close　with　a　few



words　upon　it。



　　Our　programme　was；　then；　to　discover　some　faculty　of　reasoning　about



any　theme　put　before　us　from　the　most　generally　accepted　premisses



that　there　are。　For　that　is　the　essential　task　of　the　art　of



discussion　（dialectic）　and　of　examination　（peirastic）。　Inasmuch；



however；　as　it　is　annexed　to　it；　on　account　of　the　near　presence　of



the　art　of　sophistry　（sophistic）；　not　only　to　be　able　to　conduct　an



examination　dialectically　but　also　with　a　show　of　knowledge；　we



therefore　proposed　for　our　treatise　not　only　the　aforesaid　aim　of



being　able　to　exact　an　account　of　any　view；　but　also　the　aim　of



ensuring　that　in　standing　up　to　an　argument　we　shall　defend　our　thesis



in　the　same　manner　by　means　of　views　as　generally　held　as　possible。



The　reason　of　this　we　have　explained；　for　this；　too；　was　why



Socrates　used　to　ask　questions　and　not　to　answer　them；　for　he　used



to　confess　that　he　did　not　know。　We　have　made　clear；　in　the　course



of　what　precedes；　the　number　both　of　the　points　with　reference　to



which；　and　of　the　materials　from　which；　this　will　be　accomplished；　and



also　from　what　sources　we　can　become　well　supplied　with　these：　we　have



shown；　moreover；　how　to　question　or　arrange　the　questioning　as　a



whole；　and　the　problems　concerning　the　answers　and　solutions　to　be



used　against　the　reasonings　of　the　questioner。　We　have　also　cleared　up



the　problems　concerning　all　other　matters　that　belong　to　the　same



inquiry　into　arguments。　In　addition　to　this　we　have　been　through　the



subject　of　Fallacies；　as　we　have　already　stated　above。



　　That　our　programme；　then；　has　been　adequately　completed　is　clear。



But　we　must　not　omit　to　notice　what　has　happened　in　regard　to　this



inquiry。　For　in　the　case　of　all　discoveries　the　results　of　previous



labours　that　have　been　handed　down　from　others　have　been　advanced



bit　by　bit　by　those　who　have　taken　them　on；　whereas　the　original



discoveries　generally　make　advance　that　is　small　at　first　though



much　more　useful　than　the　development　which　later　springs　out　of　them。



For　it　may　be　that　in　everything；　as　the　saying　is；　'the　first　start



is　the　main　part'：　and　for　this　reason　also　it　is　the　most



difficult；　for　in　proportion　as　it　is　most　potent　in　its　influence；　so



it　is　smallest　in　its　compass　and　therefore　most　difficult　to　see：



whereas　when　this　is　once　discovered；　it　is　easier　to　add　and



develop　the　remainder　in　connexion　with　it。　This　is　in　fact　what　has



happened　in　regard　to　rhetorical　speeches　and　to　practically　all　the



other　arts：　for　those　who　discovered　the　beginnings　of　them　advanced



them　in　all　only　a　little　way；　whereas　the　celebrities　of　to…day　are



the　heirs　（so　to　speak）　of　a　long　succession　of　men　who　have



advanced　them　bit　by　bit；　and　so　have　developed　them　to　their



present　form；　Tisias　coming　next　after　the　first　founders；　then



Thrasymachus　after　Tisias；　and　Theodorus　next　to　him；　while　several



people　have　made　their　several　contributions　to　it：　and　therefore　it



is　not　to　be　wondered　at　that　the　art　has　attained　considerable



dimensions。　Of　this　inquiry；　on　the　other　hand；　it　was　not　the　case



that　part　of　the　work　had　been　thoroughly　done　before；　while　part



had　not。　Nothing　existed　at　all。　For　the　training　given　by　the　paid



professors　of　contentious　arguments　was　like　the　treatment　of　the



matter　by　Gorgias。　For　they　used　to　hand　out　speeches　to　be　learned　by



heart；　some　rhetorical；　others　in　the　form　of　question　and　answer；



each　side　supposing　that　their　arguments　on　either　side　generally　fall



among　them。　And　therefore　the　teaching　they　gave　their　pupils　was



ready　but　rough。　For　they　used　to　suppose　that　they　trained　people



by　imparting　to　them　not　the　art　but　its　products；　as　though　any　one



professing　that　he　would　impart　a　form　of　knowledge　to　obviate　any



pain　in　the　feet；　were　then　not　to　teach　a　man　the　art　of



shoe…making　or　the　sources　whence　he　can　acquire　anything　of　the　kind；



but　were　to　present　him　with　several　kinds　of　shoes　of　all　sorts：



for　he　has　helped　him　to　meet　his　need；　but　has　not　imparted　an　art　to



him。　Moreover；　on　the　subject　of　Rhetoric　there　exists　much　that　has



been　said　long　ago；　whereas　on　the　subject　of　reasoning　we　had　nothing



else　of　an　earlier　date　to　speak　of　at　all；　but　were　kept　at　work



for　a　long　time　in　experimental　researches。　If；　then；　it　seems　to



you　after　inspection　that；　such　being　the　situation　as　it　existed　at



the　start；　our　investigation　is　in　a　satisfactory　condition　compared



with　the　other　inquiries　that　have　been　developed　by　tradition；



there　must　remain　for　all　of　you；　or　for　our　students；　the　task　of



extending　us　your　pardon　for　the　shortcomings　of　the　inquiry；　and



for　the　discoveries　thereof　your　warm　thanks。











　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　…THE　END…



。