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plains；　and　meadows；　but　where　the　seasons　do　not　change　much　there
the　country　is　the　most　even；　and；　if　one　will　consider　it；　so　is　it
also　with　regard　to　the　inhabitants；　for　the　nature　of　some　is　like　to
a　country　covered　with　trees　and　well　watered；　of　some；　to　a　thin　soil
deficient　in　water；　of　others；　to　fenny　and　marshy　places；　and　of　some
again；　to　a　plain　of　bare　and　parched　land。　For　the　seasons　which
modify　their　natural　frame　of　body　are　varied；　and　the　greater　the
varieties　of　them　the　greater　also　will　be　the　differences　of　their
shapes。
　　14。　I　will　pass　over　the　smaller　differences　among　the　nations；
but　will　now　treat　of　such　as　are　great　either　from　nature；　or　custom；
and；　first；　concerning　the　Macrocephali。　There　is　no　other　race　of　men
which　have　heads　in　the　least　resembling　theirs。　At　first；　usage　was
the　principal　cause　of　the　length　of　their　head；　but　now　nature
cooperates　with　usage。　They　think　those　the　most　noble　who　have　the
longest　heads。　It　is　thus　with　regard　to　the　usage：　immediately
after　the　child　is　born；　and　while　its　head　is　still　tender；　they
fashion　it　with　their　hands；　and　constrain　it　to　assume　a　lengthened
shape　by　applying　bandages　and　other　suitable　contrivances　whereby　the
spherical　form　of　the　head　is　destroyed；　and　it　is　made　to　increase　in
length。　Thus；　at　first；　usage　operated；　so　that　this　constitution
was　the　result　of　force：　but；　in　the　course　of　time；　it　was　formed
naturally；　so　that　usage　had　nothing　to　do　with　it；　for　the　semen
comes　from　all　parts　of　the　body；　sound　from　the　sound　parts；　and
unhealthy　from　the　unhealthy　parts。　If；　then；　children　with　bald　heads
are　born　to　parents　with　bald　heads；　and　children　with　blue　eves　to
parents　who　have　blue　eyes；　and　if　the　children　of　parents　having
distorted　eyes　squint　also　for　the　most　part；　and　if　the　same　may　be
said　of　other　forms　of　the　body；　what　is　to　prevent　it　from
happening　that　a　child　with　a　long　head　should　be　produced　by　a　parent
having　a　long　head？　But　now　these　things　do　not　happen　as　they　did
formerly；　for　the　custom　no　longer　prevails　owing　to　their　intercourse
with　other　men。　Thus　it　appears　to　me　to　be　with　regard　to　them。
　　15。　As　to　the　inhabitants　of　Phasis；　their　country　is　fenny；　warm；
humid；　and　wooded；　copious　and　severe　rains　occur　there　at　all
seasons；　and　the　life　of　the　inhabitants　is　spent　among　the　fens；
for　their　dwellings　are　constructed　of　wood　and　reeds；　and　are　erected
amidst　the　waters；　they　seldom　practice　walking　either　to　the　city
or　the　market；　but　sail　about；　up　and　down；　in　canoes　constructed
out　of　single　trees；　for　there　are　many　canals　there。　They　drink　the
hot　and　stagnant　waters；　both　when　rendered　putrid　by　the　sun；　and
when　swollen　with　rains。　The　Phasis　itself　is　the　most　stagnant　of　all
rivers；　and　runs　the　smoothest；　all　the　fruits　which　spring　there
are　unwholesome；　feeble　and　imperfect　growth；　owing　to　the
redundance　of　water；　and　on　this　account　they　do　not　ripen；　for　much
vapor　from　the　waters　overspreads　the　country。　For　these　reasons　the
Phasians　have　shapes　different　from　those　of　all　other　men；　for　they
are　large　in　stature；　and　of　a　very　gross　habit　of　body；　so　that　not　a
joint　nor　vein　is　visible；　in　color　they　are　sallow；　as　if　affected
with　jaundice。　Of　all　men　they　have　the　roughest　voices；　from　their
breathing　an　atmosphere　which　is　not　clear；　but　misty　and　humid；
they　are　naturally　rather　languid　in　supporting　bodily　fatigue。　The
seasons　undergo　but　little　change　either　as　to　heat　or　cold；　their
winds　for　the　most　part　are　southerly；　with　the　exception　of　one
peculiar　to　the　country；　which　sometimes　blows　strong；　is　violent
and　hot；　and　is　called　by　them　the　wind　cenchron。　The　north　wind
scarcely　reaches　them；　and　when　it　does　blow　it　is　weak　and　gentle。
Thus　it　is　with　regard　to　the　different　nature　and　shape　of　the
inhabitants　of　Asia　and　Europe。
　　16。　And　with　regard　to　the　pusillanimity　and　cowardice　of　the
inhabitants；　the　principal　reason　the　Asiatics　are　more　unwarlike
and　of　gentler　disposition　than　the　Europeans　is；　the　nature　of　the
seasons；　which　do　not　undergo　any　great　changes　either　to　heat　or
cold；　or　the　like；　for　there　is　neither　excitement　of　the
understanding　nor　any　strong　change　of　the　body　whereby　the　temper
might　be　ruffled　and　they　be　roused　to　inconsiderate　emotion　and
passion；　rather　than　living　as　they　do　always　in　the　state。　It　is
changes　of　all　kinds　which　arouse　understanding　of　mankind；　and　do　not
allow　them　to　get　into　a　torpid　condition。　For　these　reasons；　it
appears　to　me；　the　Asiatic　race　is　feeble；　and　further；　owing　to　their
laws；　for　monarchy　prevails　in　the　greater　part　of　Asia；　and　where　men
are　not　their　own　masters　nor　independent；　but　are　the　slaves　of
others；　it　is　not　a　matter　of　consideration　with　them　how　they　may
acquire　military　discipline；　but　how　they　may　seem　not　to　be
warlike；　for　the　dangers　are　not　equally　shared；　since　they　must　serve
as　soldiers；　perhaps　endure　fatigue；　and　die　for　their　masters；　far
from　their　children；　their　wives；　and　other　friends；　and　whatever
noble　and　manly　actions　they　may　perform　lead　only　to　the
aggrandizement　of　their　masters；　whilst　the　fruits　which　they　reap　are
dangers　and　death；　and；　in　addition　to　all　this；　the　lands　of　such
persons　must　be　laid　waste　by　the　enemy　and　want　of　culture。　Thus；
then；　if　any　one　be　naturally　warlike　and　courageous；　his
disposition　will　be　changed　by　the　institutions。　As　a　strong　proof
of　all　this；　such　Greeks　or　barbarians　in　Asia　as　are　not　under　a
despotic　form　of　government；　but　are　independent；　and　enjoy　the　fruits
of　their　own　labors；　are　of　all　others　the　most　warlike；　for　these
encounter　dangers　on　their　own　account；　bear　the　prizes　of　their　own
valor；　and　in　like　manner　endure　the　punishment　of　their　own
cowardice。　And　you　will　find　the　Asiatics　differing　from　one
another；　for　some　are　better　and　others　more　dastardly；　of　these
differences；　as　I　stated　before；　the　changes　of　the　seasons　are　the
cause。　Thus　it　is　with　Asia。
　　17。　In　Europe　there　is　a　Scythian　race；　called　Sauromatae；　which
inhabits　the　confines　of　the　Palus　Maeotis；　and　is　different　from
all　other　races。　Their　women　mount　on　horseback；　use　the　bow；　and
throw　the　javelin　from　their　horses；　and　fight　with　their　enemies　as
long　as　they　are　virgins；　and　they　do　not　lay　aside　their　virginity
until　they　kill　three　of　their　enemies；　nor　have　any　connection　with
men　until　they　perform　the　sacrifices　according　to　law。　Whoever
takes　to　herself　a　husband；　gives　up　riding　on　horseback　unless　the
necessity　of　a　general　expedition　obliges　her。　They　have　no　right
breast；　for　while　still　of　a　tender　age　their　mothers　heat　strongly
a　copper　instrument　constructed　for　this　very　purpose；　and　apply　it　to
the　right　breast；　which　is　burnt　up；　and　its　development　being
arrested；　all　the　strength　and　fullness　are　determined　to　the　right
shoulder　and　arm。
　　18。　As　the　other　Scythians　have　a　peculiarity　of　shape；　and　do　not
resemble　any　other；　the　same　observation　applies　to　the　Egyptians；
only　that　the　latter　are　oppressed　by　heat　and　the　former　by　cold。
What　is　called　the　Scythian　desert　is　a　prairie；　rich　in　meadows；
high…lying；　and　well　watered；　for　the　rivers　which　carry　off　the　water
from　the　plains　are　large。　There　live　those　Scythians　which　are　called
Nomades；　because　they　have　no　houses；　but　live　in　wagons。　The　smallest
of　these　wagons　have　four　wheels；　but　some　have　six；　they　are
covered　in　with　felt；　and　they　are　constructed　in　the　manner　of
houses；　some　having　but　a　single　apartment；　and　some　three；　they　are
proof　against　rain；　snow；　and　winds。　The　wagons　are　drawn　by　yokes
of　oxen；　some　of　two　and　others　of　three；　and　all　without　horns；　for
they　have　no　horns；　owing　to　the　cold。　In　these　wagons　the　women　live；
but　the　men　are　carried　about　on　horses；　and　the　sheep；　oxen；　and
horses　accompany　them；　and　they　remain　on　any　spot　as　long　as　there　is
provender　for　their　cattle；　and　when　that　fails　they　migrate　to　some
other　place。　They　eat　boiled　meat；　and　drink　the　milk　of　mares；　and
also　eat　hippace；　which　is　cheese　prepared　from　the　milk　of　the
mare。　Such　is　their　mode　of　life　and　their　customs。
　　19。　In　respect　of　the　seasons　and　figure　of　body；　the　Scythian　race；
like　the　Egyptian；　have　a　uniformity　of　resemblance；　different　from
all　other　nations；　they　are　by　no　means　prolific；　and　the　wild
beasts　which　are　indigenous　there　are　small　in　size　and　few　in　number；
for　the　country　lies　under　the　Northern　Bears；　and　the　Rhiphaean
mountains；　whence　the　north　wind　blows；　the　sun　comes　very　near　to
them　only　when　in　the　summer　solstice；　and　warms　them　but　for　a
short　period；　and　not　strongly；　and　the　winds　blowing　from　the　hot
regions　of　the　earth　do　not　reach　them；　or　but　seldom；　and　with　little
force；　but　the　winds　from　the　north　always　blow；　congealed；　as　they
are；　by　the　snow；　ice；　and　much　water；　for　these　never　leave　the
mountains；　which　are　thereby　rendered　uninhabitable。　A　thick　fog
covers　the　plains　during　the　day；　and　amidst　it　they　live；　so　that
winter　may　be　said　to　be　always　present　with　them；　or；　if　they　have
summer；　it　is　only　for　a　few　days；　and　the　heat　is　not　very　strong。
Their　plains　are　high…lying　and　naked；　not　crowned　with　mountains；　but
extending　upwards　under　the　Northern　Bears。　The　wild　beasts　there
are　not　large；　but　such　as　can　be　sheltered　underground；　for　the
cold　of　winter　and　the　barrenness　of　the　country　prevent　their　growth；
and　because　they　have　no　covert　nor　shelter。　The　changes　of　the
seasons；　too；　are　not　great　nor　violent；　for；　in　fact；　they　change
gradually；　and　therefore　their　figures　resemble　one　another；　as　they
all　equally　use　the　same　food；　and　the　same　clothing　summer　and
winter；　respiring　a　humid　and　dense　atmosphere；　and　drinking　water
from　snow　and　ice；　neither　do　they　make　any　laborious　exertions；　for
neither　body　nor　mind　is　capable　of　enduring　fatigue　when　the
changes　of　the　seasons　are　not　great。　For　these　reasons　their　shapes
are　gross　and　fleshy；　with　ill…marked　joints；　of　a　humid
temperament；　and　deficient　in　tone：　the　internal　cavities；　and
especially　those　of　the　intestines；　are　full　of　humors；　fo