labour defended against the claims of capital-第5部分

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in　the　case　of　a　timepiece；　a　peculiar　skill　to　render　them
productive。　A　ship；　for　example；　is　undoubtedly　a　noble
instrument；　as　admirable　and　useful　a　portion　of　fixed　capital　as
the　hand　of　man　ever　created；　or　his　skill　ever　employed。　By　it
the　wealth　of　Great　Britain　has　been　and　will　be　augmented。　But
our　navy　would　lie　and　rot　unless　care　were　taken　to　preserve　it；
and　the　ships　when　turned　adrift　would　be　bruised　by　the　waves；
the　winds　or　the　rocks　unless　they　were　guided　by　seamen。　By　the
skill　acquired　during　many　years'　experience；　and　by　much　labour
guided　by　this　skill；　a　ship　is　built。　It　would　trouble　me　to
enumerate　the　various　species　of　industry　which　are　necessary　to
prepare　her　for　sea。　There　is　the　skill　and　labour　of　the
draughtsman；　of　the　working　shipwright；　of　the　carpenter；　the
mast　maker；　the　sail　maker；　the　cooper；　the　founder；　the　smith；
the　coppersmith；　the　compass　maker；　etc。；　etc。；　but　there　is
nothing　necessary　more　than　the　skill　and　labour　of　these
different　persons。　After　she　is　made　ready　the　same　qualities
watch　over　her；　check　the　first　indications　of　decay；　and　repair
every　little　defect　occasioned　by　accident　and　time。　She　is　then；
however；　of　no　use　unless　there　are　seamen　to　manage　her。　To
conduct　her　safely　from　port　to　port；　and　from　hemisphere　to
hemisphere；　a　great　deal　of　knowledge　of　the　winds　and　tides；　of
the　phenomena　of　the　heavens；　and　of　the　laws　which　prevail　on
the　surface　of　the　earth；　is　necessary；　and　only　when　this
knowledge　is　united　with　great　skill；　and　carried　into　effect　by
labour；　can　a　ship　be　safely　conducted　through　the　multitudes　of
dangers　which　beset　her　course。　To　have　and　to　use　this　fixed
capital；　knowledge；　labour　and　skill　are　necessary。　Without　these
it　could　not　be　made；　and　when　it　would　be　less　productive　than
the　clod　from　which　its　materials　spring；　or　from　which　they　are
fashioned　by　the　hand　of　man。
　　　　　A　road　is　made　by　a　certain　quantity　of　labour；　and　is　then
called　fixed　capital；　the　constant　repairs　it　needs；　however；　are
a　continual　making；　and　the　expense　incurred　by　them　is　called
circulating　capital。　But　neither　the　circulating　nor　the　fixed
capital　return　any　profit　to　the　road　makers　unless　there　are
persons　to　travel　over　the　road　or　make　a　further　use　of　their
labour。　The　road　facilitates　the　progress　of　the　traveller；　and
just　in　proportion　as　people　do　travel　over　it；　so　does　the
labour　which　has　been　employed　on　the　road　become　productive　and
useful。　One　easily　comprehends　why　both　these　species　of　labour
should　be　paid　　why　the　road　maker　should　receive　some　of　the
benefits　accruing　only　to　the　road　user；　but　I　do　not　comprehend
why　all　these　benefits　should　go　to　the　road　itself　and　be
appropriated　by　a　set　of　person　who　neither　make　nor　use　it；
under　the　name　of　profit　for　their　capital。　One　is　almost　tempted
to　believe　that　capital　is　a　sort　of　cabalistic　word；　like　Church
or　State；　or　any　other　of　those　general　terms　which　are　invented
by　those　who　fleece　the　rest　of　mankind　to　conceal　the　hand　that
shears　them。　It　is　a　sort　of　idol　before　which　men　are　called
upon　to　prostrate　themselves；　while　the　cunning　priest　from
behind　the　altar；　profaning　the　God　whom　he　pretends　to　serve；
and　mocking　those　sweet　sentiments　of　devotion　and　gratitude；　or
those　terrible　emotions　of　fear　and　resentment；　one　or　the　other
of　which　seems　common　to　the　whole　human　race；　as　they　are
enlightened　and　wise；　or　ignorant　and　debased；　puts　forth　his
hand　to　receive　and　appropriate　the　offerings　which　he　calls　for
in　the　name　of　religion。
　　　　　A　steam　engine　also　is　a　most　complete　instrument；　but　alas！
for　the　capitalist；　it　does　not　go　of　itself。　A　peculiar　skill　is
required　to　make　it　and　put　it　up；　and　peculiar　skill　and　labour
must　afterwards　direct　and　regulate　its　movements。　What　would　it
produce　without　the　engineer？　To　the　stranger　who　did　not　possess
the　engineer's　skill；　only　misery；　death　and　destruction。　Its
vast　utility　does　not　depend　on　stored　up　iron　and　wood；　but　on
that　practical　and　living　knowledge　of　the　powers　of　nature　which
enables　some　men　to　construct；　and　others　to　guide　it。
　　　　　If　we　descend　to　more　minute　instruments；　and　consider　such
as　are　guided　by　the　hand；　the　necessity　of　skill　and　labour；　and
the　utter　worthlessness　of　capital　by　itself；　will　be　still　more
obvious。　It　has　been　asked；　what　could　a　carpenter　effect　without
his　hatchet　and　his　saw？　I　put　the　converse　of　the　question；　and
ask　what　the　hatchet　and　saw　could　effect　without　the　carpenter。
Rust　and　rottenness　must　be　the　answer。　A　plough　or　a　scythe　may
be　made　with　the　most　cunning　art；　but　to　use　either　of　them　a
man　must　have　a　droit　turn　of　the　hand；　or　a　peculiar　species　of
skill。　The　shoemaker　who　can　thrust　awls　through　leather　with
singular　dexterity　and　neatness　cannot　make　any　use　of　a
watchmaker's　tools；　and　the　most　skilful　and　dexterous　maker　of
plane；　saw　and　chisel　blades　would　find　it　difficult　to　construct
with　them　any　of　that　furniture　which　the　cabinet　maker　forms
with　so　much　dispatch　and　beautiful　effect。　Almost　every　species
of　workman；　however；　from　having　acquired　a　certain　dexterity　in
the　use　of　his　hands；　and　from　having　frequently　seen　the
operations　of　other　workmen；　could　learn　the　art　of　another　man
much　better　than　a　person　who　had　never　practised　any　kind　of
manual　dexterity；　and　never　seen　it　practised。　But　if　a　skilled
labourer　could　not　direct　any　kind　of　instruments　so　well　as　the
man　who　has　been　constantly　accustomed　to　use　them；　it　is　plain
that　the　whole　productive　power　of　such　instruments　must　depend
altogether　on　the　peculiar　skill　of　the　artisan　and　mechanic；　who
has　been　trained　to　practise　different　arts。　Fixed　capital；　of
whatever　species；　then；　is　only　a　costly　production；　costly　to
make；　and　costly　to　preserve；　without　that　particular　species　of
skill　and　labour　which　guides　each　instrument；　and　which；　as　I
have　before　shown；　is　nourished；　instructed　and　maintained　by
wages　alone。　The　utility　of　the　instruments　the　labourer　uses　can
in　no　wise　be　separated　from　his　skill。　Whoever　may　be　the　owner
of　fixed　capital　　and　in　the　present　state　of　society　he　who
makes　it　is　not；　and　he　who　uses　it　is　not　　it　is　the　hand　and
knowledge　of　the　labourer　which　make　it；　preserve　it　from　decay；
and　which　use　it　to　any　beneficial　end。
　　　　　For　a　nation　to　have　fixed　capital；　then；　and　to　make　a　good
use　of　it；　three　things；　and　only　three　things；　seem　to　me　to　be
requisite。　First；　knowledge　and　ingenuity　for　inventing　machines。
No　labourer　would；　I　am　sure；　be　disposed　to　deny　to　these　their
reward。　But　no　subject　of　complaint　is　more　general　or　more　just
than　that　the　inventor　of　any　machine　does　not　reap　the　benefit
of　it。　Of　all　the　immense　number　of　persons　who　have　acquired
large　fortunes　by　the　modern　improvements　in　steam　engines　and
cotton　mills；　Mr　Watt　and　Mr　Arkwright　are　the　only　two；　I
believe；　who　have　been　distinguished　for　their　inventions；　they
also　acquired　wealth　less　as　inventors　than　as　capitalists。　Mr
Watt　found　a　capitalist　who　appreciated　his　genius；　and　Mr
Arkwright　saved　and　borrowed　the　means　of　profiting　by　his　own
inventions。　Thousands　of　capitalist　have　been　enriched　by
inventions　and　discoveries　of　which　they　were　not　the　authors；
and　capital；　by　robbing　the　inventor　of　his　just　reward；　is
guilty　of　stifling　genius。　The　second　requisite　for　having　fixed
capital　is　the　manual　skill　and　dexterity　for　carrying　these
inventions　into　execution。　The　third　requisite　is　the　skill　and
labour　to　use　these　instruments　after　they　are　made。　Without
knowledge　they　could　not　be　invented；　without　manual　skill　and
dexterity　they　could　not　be　made；　and　without　skill　and　labour
they　could　not　be　productively　used。　But　there　is　nothing　more
than　the　knowledge；　skill　and　labour　requisite　on　which　the
capitalist　can　found　a　claim　to　any　share　of　the　produce。
　　　　　Naturally　and　individually　man　is　one　of　the　most　feeble　and
destitute　of　all　created　animals。　His　intelligence；　however；
compensates　for　his　physical　inferiority。　After　he　has　inherited
the　knowledge　of　several　generations；　and　when　he　lives
congregated　into　great　masses；　he　is　enabled　by　his　mental
faculties　to　complete；　as　it　were；　the　work　of　nature；　and　add　to
his　intelligence　the　physical　powers　of　the　lower　animals。　He
directs　his　course　on　the　waters；　he　floats　in　the　air；　he　dives
into　the　bowels　of　the　earth；　and　all　which　its　surface　bears　he
makes　tributary　to　his　use。　The　gales　which　threaten　at　first　to
blow　him　from　the　earth；　grind　his　corn；　and　waft　to　him　a　share
in　the　treasures　of　the　whole　world。　He　creates　at　this　pleasure
the　devouring　element　of　fire；　and　checks　its　progress；　so　that
it　destroys　only　what　he　has　no　wish　to　preserve。　He　directs　the
course　of　the　stream；　and　he　sets　bounds　to　the　ocean；　in　short；
he　presses　all　the　elements　into　his　service；　and　makes　Nature
herself　the　handmaid　to　his　will。　The　instruments　he　uses　to　do
all　this；　which　have　been　invented　by　his　intelligence　to　aid　his
feeble　powers；　and　which　are　employed　by　his　skill　and　his　hands；
have　been　called　fixed　capital；　and　shutting　out　of　view　man
himself；　in　order　to　justify　the　existing　order　of　society；　which
is　founded　on　property　or　possessions；　and　the　existing
oppression　of　the　labourer；　who　forms　unhappily　part　of　these
possessions　　all　these　glorious　effects　have　been　attributed；
with　a　more　extraordinary　perversion　of　thought；　perhaps；　than　is
to　be　found　in　any　other　department　of　knowledge；　to　fixed　and
circulating　capital。　The　skill　and　the　art　of　the　labourer　have
been　overlooked；　and　he　has　been　vilified；　while　the　work　of　his
hands　has　been　worshipped。　1

＇1。　In　all　errors　which　are　generally　adopted　there　is　a
tolerable　substratum　of　truth。　In　the　present　case　the　substratum
of　truth　is　this：　There　was　time　in　society　when　capital　and
capitalists　were　of　the　most　essential　service　to　it。　On　the
establishment　of　towns　in　Europe；　and　on　the　introduction　of
manufactures　into　them；　they　became　the　refuge　of　all　the
oppressed　and　enslaved　peasantry　who　could　escape　from　their
feudal