lecture v-第7部分

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submission　of　Russia　to　a　foreign　prince。　In　those　unhappy　days
when　so　many　provinces　were　occupied　by　Polish　and　Swedish
soldiers；　and　the　boyars　were　half　gained　over　to　the　interests
of　Vladislas；　the　son　of　the　Polish　king；　when　Novgorod　made　a
separate　peace　with　the　Swedes；　and　was　on　the　point　of
recognising　the　doubtful　rights　of　a　Swedish　pretender；　the
political　unity　of　Russia　found　champions　only　in　the　ranks　of
the　lower　orders　represented　at　the　Sobor。
　　　　The　history　of　these　old　Russian　Parliaments　presents
certainly　a　less　dramatic　interest　than　the　history　of　English
Parliaments　or　French　States…General。　Cases　of　conflict　between
the　different　orders　convened　to　the　National　Councils　occur　very
seldom。　We　read　of　no　vehement　invectives；　like　those　which　the
deputies　of　the　nobility　thundered　forth　against　the　third　estate
at　the　etats　generaux　of　1613。　We　hear　also　of　no　compacts　or
associations　between　estates；　like　those；　which　more　than　once
allowed　the　English　barons　and　burgesses　to　achieve　a　manifest
victory　over　the　king。　The　language　employed　by　Russian
representatives　in　speaking　to　their　sovereign　is　moderate；　and
sometimes　even　servile。　They　like　to　call　themselves　the　〃slaves
of　his　Majesty；〃　but；　in　so　doing；　they　never　forget　their
obligations　towards　their　electors；　to　open　the　eyes　of　the
Government　to　〃all　the　wrongs；　depredations；　and　oppressions；
committed　by　its　officers。〃　They　are　subjects；　conscious　of　their
duty　towards　sovereign　and　country；　ready　to　sacrifice　their　life
and　estates　for　the　defence　of　its　essential　interest；　they　are
not　slaves；　afraid　of　opening　their　mouths　or　of　offending　the
ear　of　the　monarch　by　a　truthful　description　of　their　wrongs。
Their　loyalty　towards　the　Czar　finds　a　parallel　in　that　which
they　entertain　towards　the　Greek　Church。　They　are　orthodox；　and；
therefore；　ready　to　shed。　their　blood　in　the　defence　of　their
creed；　simply　represented；　as　it　sometimes　is；　by　the　images　of
the　saints；　but　they　have　no　inclination　towards　clericalism；　and
no　objection　to　imposing　taxes　on　the　clergy　and　even　to
secularising　their　estates　for　the　good　of　the　country　and　the
advantage　of　the　military　class。　Illiterate　as　were　their
members；　it　is　not　surprising　that　the　Sobors　took　no　measure　to
increase　the　number　of　schools　and　educational　establishments。
They　are　probably　the　sole　representative　Assemblies　which　never
uttered　a　word　about　science　or　scholarship。　It　was　chiefly　due
to　their　ignorance　that　their　opinions　about　commercial
intercourse　with　foreign　countries　were　so　little　rational。　it　is
not　surprising　if　the　whole　policy　of　trade　reduced　itself；
according　to　their　understanding；　to　the　elimination　of　the
competition　of　the　Eastern　and　Western　merchants。
　　　　With　such　helpers　as　these　no　general　reform；　like　that　of
Peter　the　Great；　was　likely　to　be　accomplished。　It　may　be　easily
understood；　therefore；　why　this　greatest　of　Russian
revolutionists　never　tried　to　associate　the　Sobors　in　his　work。
The　reforms　at　which　he　aimed：　the　subversion　of　the　civil　and
military　organisation；　the　introduction　of　a　totally　new
provincial　administration；　copied　from　Swedish　originals；　of　a
standing　army；　like　those　of　the　French　and　German　autocrats；　the
opening　of　Russian　markets　to　the　competition　of　foreign
merchants；　the　establishment　of　technical　schools　and　such　like
innovations；　were　not　to　be　carried　out　by　〃the　decision　of　the
whole　land；〃　to　employ　the　consecrated　term　for　Russian　legal
enactments　during　the　period　directly　preceding　that　of　Peter　the
Great。　〃Enlightened　despostism〃　found　in　Russia　the　same
difficulty　in　going　hand　in　hand　with　the　old　Assemblies　of
estates；　as　it　did　in　Austria　at　the　time　of　Joseph　the　Second。
　　　　Fully　to　understand　the　reasons　which　prevented　the　Wither
development　of　the　Russian　national　councils；　we　must　also　bear
in　mind　that　the　period　in　which　Russia；　by　the　genius　of　Peter；
was　thrown　into　active　intercourse　with　European　powers；　was　far
from　being　the　golden　age　of　representative　Government。　When　the
Sobors　began　to　take　root　in　the　Russian　soil；　Parliaments　and
States…General　were　rapidly　advancing　to　a　state　of　complete
annihilation　or　temporary　suppression。　What　importance　can　we
attach　to　the　deliberations　of　the　English　Parliaments　under　the
Tudors；　or　even　under　the　Stuarts；　up　to　the　year　1640？　What
National　Assembly　can　we　mention　in　France　after　the　year　1613？
The　fall　of　representative　institutions；　which　we　notice　both　in
England　and　in　France；　was　a　common　fact　of　European　history。　The
German　Reichstag　and　the　Landstande　of　the　different　States　which
composed　the　Holy　Roman　Empire　had　fallen　into　the　same　state　of
political　insignificance　during　the　period　following　the　treaty
of　Munster。　The　same　fate　had　overtaken　the　Cortes　of　Castille
and　Aragon；　and　the　provincial　estates　of　Hungary　and　Bohemia。
All　over　Europe　monarchical　power　was　steadily　increasing；　and
autocracy　becoming　the　ruling　principle　of　the　day。　Was　it
likely；　therefore；　that　Peter；　who　declared　that　he　would
willingly　have　given　to　Richelieu　a　good　moiety　of　his　dominions
on　condition　of　being　taught　by　him　how　to　rule　the　remainder；
was　it　likely；　I　ask；　that　that　same　Peter　should　bring　home　from
his　long　voyages　in　the　West　any　particular　respect　for
representative　institutions？　It　is；　therefore；　easily　understood
why；　from　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century；　the　Sobors；
without　being　abolished；　should　have　ceased　to　be　convened。
　　　　It　was　not　until　there　was　a　general　revival　of
representative　institutions　throughout　Europe　that　Russian
statesmen　were　found　once　more　occupied　with　the　question　of　the
Sobors。
　　　　Alexander　I；　to　judge　by　the　liberality　with　which　he　endowed
the　Poles　with　a　representative　assembly；　was；　at　least　in　the
first　part　of　his　reign；　not　directly　opposed　to　the　idea　of
re…calling　to　life　those　venerable　institutions　of　the　past。
Among　the　papers　of　his　most　intimate　Councillor；　Speransky；
there　has　been　found　the　project　of　a　constitution；　according　to
which　the　Council　of　State；　this　natural　heir　of　the　old　Russian
Douma；　was　to　be　strengthened　by　the　introduction　of
representatives　and　notables；　chosen　from　the　different　Estates
of　the　Empire。　In　much　more　recent　days　a　similar　project　was
presented　by　Loris　Melikoff　to　Alexander　II；　and　an　imperial
ukase　summoning　this　new　Assembly　of　notables　was　already　signed；
when　the　premature　death　of　the　Emperor　put　an　end　to　the
expectations　of　the　Liberal　party。　In　the　first　weeks　of　his
reign　Alexander　III　himself　was　not　opposed　to　the　idea　of
reviving　the　old　national　institution　of　the　Sobors；　and　his
first　two　ministers　for　Home　Affairs；　Loris　Melikoff　and
Ignatiev；　were　both　in　favour　of　such　a　reform。　It　was　only　from
the　day　when　Count　Dimitri　Tolstoi　took　upon　his　shoulders　the
burthen　of　the　home　politics　of　Russia；　that　all　thoughts　were
given　up　of　convoking　a　representative　assembly。　The　Government
then　entered　on　the　fatal　task　of　the　subversion　of　all　recent
reforms。　Nobody　can　tell　how　long　will　be　the　duration　of　the
period　of　reaction　upon　which　we　have　entered；　but　on　the　other
hand　nobody　can　doubt　that　the　convocation　of　a　national　council
is　the　most　natural　way　of　satisfying　the　wishes　of　the
constantly　increasing　party　of　malcontents　　a　body　of　men　which
has　been　nick…named　by　its　opponents　〃the　Intelligent　Party〃
（intelligentia）　　a　nick…name；　which　certainly　cannot　offend
those　on　whom　it　is　conferred。
　　　　The　convocation　of　a　national　representative　assembly　would
no　doubt　close　the　era　of　misunderstanding　between　the　Russian
people　and　the　imperial　power　of　the　Czars；　it　would　unite　the
Russian　past　with　the　present　and　future；　and　would　once　more
open　a　large　field　to　the　co…operation　of　society　for　the　redress
of　old　wrongs　and　the　establishment　of　personal　liberty　and
social　justice。

NOTES：

1。　Compare　Kluchevsky's　recent　article；　〃On　the　Representative
System　of　the　Sobors；〃　in　Russian　Thought；　a　monthly　periodical；
published　at　Moscow；　January；　1890。

2。　The　were　much　the　same　as　the　Carlovingian　benefices。

3。　A　desiatin　is　approximately　three　English　acres。

4。　Nordenflicht；　〃Die　Schwedische　Staatsverfassung　in　ihrer
geschichlichen　Entwickelung；〃　p。　23。

5。　Bavelier；　〃Essai　Historique　sur　le　Droit　d'Election　et　sur　les
Anciennes　Assemblees　Representatives　en　France；〃　p。　92。

6。　〃Historisch…Geographische　Beschreibung　der　Nordl　und　Oestl。
Theile　von　Europa　und　Asien；〃　p。　202。

7。　p。　284。

8。　　〃Vor　dem　Cronungs　Act　hat　Michael　folgende　Puncte　und
conditiones　acceptirt　und　unterschrieben；　nahmlich：　（1）　Die
Religion　zu　erhalten　und　zu　schutzen：　（2）　alles　was　semem　Vater
widerfahren　zu　vergessen　und　zu　vergeben；　und　keine　particulare
Feindschaft；　sie　moge　Nahmen　haben　wie　sie　wowlle　zu　gedenken；
（3）　keine　neue　Gesetze　zu　machen；　oder　alte　zu　undern；　hohe　und
wichtige　Sachen　nach　dem　Gesetze　und　nicht　allein　vor　sich
selbst；　sondern　durch　ordentlichen　Procez　urtheilen　zu　lassen；
（4）　weder　Krieg　noch　Frieden　allein　und　vor　sich　selbst　mit　dem
Nachbar　vorzunehmen　und；　（5）　seine　Guter　zur　Bezeugung　der
Gerechtigkeit　und　Vermeidung　aller　Procesz　mit　particularen
Leuten；　entweder　an　seine　Familie　abzutreten　oder　solche　denen
Kron…Guthern　einzuverleiben。〃　（p。　209）。