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posterior analytics-第7部分

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position of the middle terms。 But there is another way too in which



the fact and the reasoned fact differ; and that is when they are



investigated respectively by different sciences。 This occurs in the



case of problems related to one another as subordinate and superior;



as when optical problems are subordinated to geometry; mechanical



problems to stereometry; harmonic problems to arithmetic; the data



of observation to astronomy。 (Some of these sciences bear almost the



same name; e。g。 mathematical and nautical astronomy; mathematical



and acoustical harmonics。) Here it is the business of the empirical



observers to know the fact; of the mathematicians to know the reasoned



fact; for the latter are in possession of the demonstrations giving



the causes; and are often ignorant of the fact: just as we have



often a clear insight into a universal; but through lack of



observation are ignorant of some of its particular instances。 These



connexions have a perceptible existence though they are manifestations



of forms。 For the mathematical sciences concern forms: they do not



demonstrate properties of a substratum; since; even though the



geometrical subjects are predicable as properties of a perceptible



substratum; it is not as thus predicable that the mathematician



demonstrates properties of them。 As optics is related to geometry;



so another science is related to optics; namely the theory of the



rainbow。 Here knowledge of the fact is within the province of the



natural philosopher; knowledge of the reasoned fact within that of the



optician; either qua optician or qua mathematical optician。 Many



sciences not standing in this mutual relation enter into it at points;



e。g。 medicine and geometry: it is the physician's business to know



that circular wounds heal more slowly; the geometer's to know the



reason why。







                                14







  Of all the figures the most scientific is the first。 Thus; it is the



vehicle of the demonstrations of all the mathematical sciences; such



as arithmetic; geometry; and optics; and practically all of all



sciences that investigate causes: for the syllogism of the reasoned



fact is either exclusively or generally speaking and in most cases



in this figure…a second proof that this figure is the most scientific;



for grasp of a reasoned conclusion is the primary condition of



knowledge。 Thirdly; the first is the only figure which enables us to



pursue knowledge of the essence of a thing。 In the second figure no



affirmative conclusion is possible; and knowledge of a thing's essence



must be affirmative; while in the third figure the conclusion can be



affirmative; but cannot be universal; and essence must have a



universal character: e。g。 man is not two…footed animal in any



qualified sense; but universally。 Finally; the first figure has no



need of the others; while it is by means of the first that the other



two figures are developed; and have their intervals closepacked



until immediate premisses are reached。



  Clearly; therefore; the first figure is the primary condition of



knowledge。







                                15







  Just as an attribute A may (as we saw) be atomically connected



with a subject B; so its disconnexion may be atomic。 I call 'atomic'



connexions or disconnexions which involve no intermediate term;



since in that case the connexion or disconnexion will not be



mediated by something other than the terms themselves。 It follows that



if either A or B; or both A and B; have a genus; their disconnexion



cannot be primary。 Thus: let C be the genus of A。 Then; if C is not



the genus of B…for A may well have a genus which is not the genus of



B…there will be a syllogism proving A's disconnexion from B thus:







        all A is C;



        no B is C;



        therefore no B is A。







Or if it is B which has a genus D; we have











        all B is D;



        no D is A;



        therefore no B is A; by syllogism;







and the proof will be similar if both A and B have a genus。 That the



genus of A need not be the genus of B and vice versa; is shown by



the existence of mutually exclusive coordinate series of



predication。 If no term in the series ACD。。。is predicable of any



term in the series BEF。。。;and if G…a term in the former series…is



the genus of A; clearly G will not be the genus of B; since; if it



were; the series would not be mutually exclusive。 So also if B has a



genus; it will not be the genus of A。 If; on the other hand; neither A



nor B has a genus and A does not inhere in B; this disconnexion must



be atomic。 If there be a middle term; one or other of them is bound to



have a genus; for the syllogism will be either in the first or the



second figure。 If it is in the first; B will have a genus…for the



premiss containing it must be affirmative: if in the second; either



A or B indifferently; since syllogism is possible if either is



contained in a negative premiss; but not if both premisses are



negative。



  Hence it is clear that one thing may be atomically disconnected from



another; and we have stated when and how this is possible。







                                16







  Ignorance…defined not as the negation of knowledge but as a positive



state of mind…is error produced by inference。



  (1) Let us first consider propositions asserting a predicate's



immediate connexion with or disconnexion from a subject。 Here; it is



true; positive error may befall one in alternative ways; for it may



arise where one directly believes a connexion or disconnexion as



well as where one's belief is acquired by inference。 The error;



however; that consists in a direct belief is without complication; but



the error resulting from inference…which here concerns us…takes many



forms。 Thus; let A be atomically disconnected from all B: then the



conclusion inferred through a middle term C; that all B is A; will



be a case of error produced by syllogism。 Now; two cases are possible。



Either (a) both premisses; or (b) one premiss only; may be false。



(a) If neither A is an attribute of any C nor C of any B; whereas



the contrary was posited in both cases; both premisses will be



false。 (C may quite well be so related to A and B that C is neither



subordinate to A nor a universal attribute of B: for B; since A was



said to be primarily disconnected from B; cannot have a genus; and A



need not necessarily be a universal attribute of all things。



Consequently both premisses may be false。) On the other hand; (b)



one of the premisses may be true; though not either indifferently



but only the major A…C since; B having no genus; the premiss C…B



will always be false; while A…C may be true。 This is the case if;



for example; A is related atomically to both C and B; because when the



same term is related atomically to more terms than one; neither of



those terms will belong to the other。 It is; of course; equally the



case if A…C is not atomic。



  Error of attribution; then; occurs through these causes and in



this form only…for we found that no syllogism of universal attribution



was possible in any figure but the first。 On the other hand; an



error of non…attribution may occur either in the first or in the



second figure。 Let us therefore first explain the various forms it



takes in the first figure and the character of the premisses in each



case。



  (c) It may occur when both premisses are false; e。g。 supposing A



atomically connected with both C and B; if it be then assumed that



no C is and all B is C; both premisses are false。



  (d) It is also possible when one is false。 This may be either



premiss indifferently。 A…C may be true; C…B false…A…C true because A



is not an attribute of all things; C…B false because C; which never



has the attribute A; cannot be an attribute of B; for if C…B were



true; the premiss A…C would no longer be true; and besides if both



premisses were true; the conclusion would be true。 Or again; C…B may



be true and A…C false; e。g。 if both C and A contain B as genera; one



of them must be subordinate to the other; so that if the premiss takes



the form No C is A; it will be false。 This makes it clear that whether



either or both premisses are false; the conclusion will equally be



false。



  In the second figure the premisses cannot both be wholly false;



for if all B is A; no middle term can be with truth universally



affirmed of one extreme and universally denied of the other: but



premisses in which the middle is affirmed of one extreme and denied of



the other are the necessary condition if one is to get a valid



inference at all。 Therefore if; taken in this way; they are wholly



false; their contraries conversely should be wholly true。 But this



is impossible。 On the other hand; there is nothing to prevent both



premisses being partially false; e。g。 if actually some A is C and some



B is C; then if it is premised that all A is C and no B is C; both



premisses are false; yet partially; not wholly; false。 The same is



true if the major is made negative instead of the minor。 Or one



premiss may be wholly false; and it may be either of them。 Thus;



supposing that actually an attribute of all A must also be an



attribute of all B; then if C is yet taken to be a universal attribute



of all but universally non…attributable to B; C…A will be true but C…B



false。 Again; actually that which is an attribute of no B will not
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