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therefore；　simply　nugatory；　but　considered　as　one　of　acquisition；



it　is　a　very　curious　science；　differing　in　its　data　and　basis



from　every　other　science　known。　Thus：　　if　I　can　exchange　a



needle　with　a　savage　for　a　diamond；　my　power　of　doing　so　depends



either　on　the　savage's　ignorance　of　social　arrangements　in



Europe；　or　on　his　want　of　power　to　take　advantage　of　them；　by



selling　the　diamond　to　any　one　else　for　more　needles。　If；



farther；　I　make　the　bargain　as　completely　advantageous　to　myself



as　possible；　by　giving　to　the　savage　a　needle　with　no　eye　in　it



（reaching；　thus　a　sufficiently　satisfactory　type　of　the　perfect



operation　of　catallactic　science）；　the　advantage　to　me　in　the



entire　transaction　depends　wholly　upon　the　ignorance；



powerlessness；　or　heedlessness　of　the　person　dealt　with。　Do　away



with　these；　and　catallactic　advantage　becomes　impossible。　So　far；



therefore；　as　the　science　of　exchange　relates　to　the　advantage　of



one　of　the　exchanging　persons　only；　it　is　founded　on　the



ignorance　or　incapacity　of　the　opposite　person。　Where　these



vanish；　it　also　vanishes。　It　is　therefore　a　science　founded　on



nescience；　and　an　art　founded　on　artlessness。　But　all　other



sciences　and　arts；　except　this；　have　for　their　object　the　doing



away　with　their　opposite　nescience　and　artlessness。　This　science；



alone　of　sciences；　must；　by　all　available　means；　promulgate　and



prolong　its　opposite　nescience；　otherwise　the　science　itself　is



impossible。　It　is；　therefore；　peculiarly　and　alone　the　science　of



darkness；　probably　a　bastard　science　　not　by　any　means　a　divina



scientia；　but　one　begotten　of　another　father；　that　father　who；



advising　his　children　to　turn　stones　into　bread；　is　himself



employed　in　turning　bread　into　stones；　and　who；　if　you　ask　a　fish



of　him　（fish　not　being　producible　on　his　estate）；　can　but　give



you　a　serpent。



　　　　The　general　law；　then；　respecting　just　or　economical



exchange；　is　simply　this：　　There　must　be　advantage　on　both



sides　（or　if　only　advantage　on　one；　at　least　no　disadvantage　on



the　other）　to　the　persons　exchanging；　and　just　payment　for　his



time；　intelligence；　and　labour；　to　any　intermediate　person



effecting　the　transaction　（commonly　called　a　merchant）；　and



whatever　advantage　there　is　on　either　side；　and　whatever　pay　is



given　to　the　intermediate　person；　should　be　thoroughly　known　to



all　concerned。　All　attempt　at　concealment　implies　some　practice



of　the　opposite；　or　undivine　science；　founded　on　nescience。



Whence　another　saying　of　the　Jew　merchant's　　〃As　a　nail　between



the　stone　joints；　so　doth　sin　stick　fast　between　buying　and



selling。〃　Which　peculiar　riveting　of　stone　and　timber；　in　men's



dealings　with　each　other；　is　again　set　forth　in　the　house　which



was　to　be　destroyed　　timber　and　stones　together　　when



Zechariah's　roll　（more　probably　〃curved　sword〃）　flew　over　it：



〃the　curse　that　goeth　forth　over　all　the　earth　upon　every　one



that　stealeth　and　holdeth　himself　guiltless；〃　instantly　followed



by　the　vision　of　the　Great　Measure；　　the　measure　〃of　the



injustice　of　them　in　all　the　earth〃　（auti　i　adikia　auton　en　pase



te　ge）；　with　the　weight　of　lead　for　its　lid；　and　the　woman；　the



spirit　of　wickedness；　within　it；　　that　is　to　say；　Wickedness



hidden　by　Dulness；　and　formalized；　outwardly；　into　ponderously



established　cruelty。　〃　It　shall　be　set　upon　its　own　base　in　the



land　of　Babel。〃　（23*）



　　　　I　have　hitherto　carefully　restricted　myself；　in　speaking　of



exchange；　to　the　use　of　the　term　〃advantage〃；　but　that　term



includes　two　ideas；　the　advantage；　namely；　of　getting　what　we



need；　and　that　of　getting　what　we　wish　for。　Three…fourths　of　the



demands　existing　in　the　world　are　romantic；　founded　on　visions；



idealisms；　hopes；　and　affections；　and　the　regulation　of　the　purse



is；　in　its　essence；　regulation　of　the　imagination　and　the　heart。



Hence；　the　right　discussion　of　the　nature　of　price　is　a　very　high



metaphysical　and　psychical　problem；　sometimes　to　be　solved　only



in　a　passionate　manner；　as　by　David　in　his　counting　the　price　of



the　water　of　the　well　by　the　gate　of　Bethlehem；　but　its　first



conditions　are　the　following：　　The　price　of　anything　is　the



quantity　of　labour　given　by　the　person　desiring　it；　in　order　to



obtain　possession　of　it。　This　price　depends　on　four　variable



quantities。　A。　The　quantity　of　wish　the　purchaser　has　for　the



thing；　opposed　to　a；　the　quantity　of　wish　the　seller　has　to　keep



it。　B。　The　quantity　of　labour　the　purchaser　can　afford；　to　obtain



the　thing　opposed　to　B；　the　quantity　of　labour　the　seller　can



afford；　to　keep　it。　These　quantities　are　operative　only　in



excess；　i。e。　the　quantity　of　wish　（A）　means　the　quantity　of　wish



for　this　thing；　above　wish　for　other　things；　and　the　quantity　of



work　（B）　means　the　quantity　which　can　be　spared　to　get　this　thing



from　the　quantity　needed　to　get　other　things。



　　　　Phenomena　of　price；　therefore；　are　intensely　complex；



curious；　and　interesting　　too　complex；　however；　to　be　examined



yet；　every　one　of　them；　when　traced　far　enough；　showing　itself　at



last　as　a　part　of　the　bargain　of　the　Poor　of　the　Flock　（or　〃flock



of　slaughter〃）；　〃If　ye　think　good；　give　ME　my　price；　and　if　not；



forbear〃　Zech。　xi。　12；　but　as　the　price　of　everything　is　to　be



calculated　finally　in　labour；　it　is　necessary　to　define　the



nature　of　that　standard。



　　　　Labour　is　the　contest　of　the　life　of　man　with　an　opposite；　



the　term　〃life〃　including　his　intellect；　soul；　and　physical



power；　contending　with　question；　difficulty；　trial；　or　material



force。



　　　　Labour　is　of　a　higher　or　lower　order；　as　it　includes　more　or



fewer　of　the　elements　of　life：　and　labour　of　good　quality；　in　any



kind；　includes　always　as　much　intellect　and　feeling　as　will　fully



and　harmoniously　regulate　the　physical　force。



　　　　In　speaking　of　the　value　and　price　of　labour；　it　is　necessary



always　to　understand　labour　of　a　given　rank　and　quality；　as　we



should　speak　of　gold　or　silver　of　a　given　standard。　Bad　（that　is；



heartless；　inexperienced；　or　senseless）　labour　cannot　be　valued；



it　is　like　gold　of　uncertain　alloy；　or　flawed　iron。（24*）



　　　　The　quality　and　kind　of　labour　being　given；　its　value；　like



that　of　all　other　valuable　things；　is　invariable。　But　the



quantity　of　it　which　must　be　given　for　other　things　is　variable：



and　in　estimating　this　variation；　the　price　of　other　things　must



always　be　counted　by　the　quantity　of　labour；　not　the　price　of



labour　by　the　quantity　of　other　things。



　　　　Thus；　if　we　want　to　plant　an　apple　sapling　in　rocky　ground；



it　may　take　two　hours'　work；　in　soft　ground；　perhaps　only　half　an



hour。　Grant　the　soil　equally　good　for　the　tree　in　each　case。　Then



the　value　of　the　sapling　planted　by　two　hours'　work　is　nowise



greater　than　that　of　the　sapling　planted　in　half　an　hour。　One



will　bear　no　more　fruit　than　the　other。　Also；　one　half…hour　of



work　is　as　valuable　as　another　half…hour；　nevertheless　the　one



sapling　has　cost　four　such　pieces　of　work；　the　other　only　one。



Now　the　proper　statement　of　this　fact　is；　not　that　the　labour　on



the　hard　ground　is　cheaper　than　on　the　soft；　but　that　the　tree　is



dearer。　The　exchange　value　may；　or　may　not；　afterwards　depend　on



this　fact。　If　other　people　have　plenty　of　soft　ground　to　plant



in；　they　will　take　no　cognizance　of　our　two　hours'　labour；　in　the



price　they　will　offer　for　the　plant　on　the　rock。　And　if；　through



want　of　sufficient　botanical　science；　we　have　planted　an　upas



tree　instead　of　an　apple；　the　exchange…value　will　be　a　negative



quantity；　still　less　proportionate　to　the　labour　expended。



　　　　What　is　commonly　called　cheapness　of　labour；　signifies；



therefore；　in　reality；　that　many　obstacles　have　to　be　overcome　by



it；　so　that　much　labour　is　required　to　produce　a　small　result。



But　this　should　never　be　spoken　of　as　cheapness　of　labour；　but　as



dearness　of　the　object　wrought　for。　It　would　be　just　as　rational



to　say　that　walking　was　cheap；　because　we　had　ten　miles　to　walk



home　to　our　dinner；　as　that　labour　was　cheap；　because　we　had　to



work　ten　hours　to　earn　it。



　　　　The　last　word　which　we　have　to　define　is　〃Production。〃



　　　　I　have　hitherto　spoken　of　all　labour　as　profitable；　because



it　is　impossible　to　consider　under　one　head　the　quality　or　value



of　labour；　and　its　aim。　But　labour　of　the　best　quality　may　be



various　in　aim。　It　may　be　either　constructive　（〃gathering〃　from



con　and　struo）；　as　agriculture；　nugatory；　as　jewel…cutting；　or



destructive　（〃scattering；〃　from　de　and　struo）；　as　war。　It　is　not；



however；　always　easy　to　prove　labour；　apparently　nugatory；　to　be



actually　so；（25*）　generally；　the　formula　holds　good：　〃he　that



gathereth　not；　scattereth〃；　thus；　the　jeweller's　art　is　probably



very　harmful　in　its　ministering　to　a　clumsy　and　inelegant　pride。



So　that；　finally；　I　believe　nearly　all　labour　may　be　shortly



divided　into　positive　and　negative　labour：　positive；　that　which



produces　life；　negative；　that　which　produces　death；　the　most



directly　negative　labour　being　murder；　and　the　most　directly



positive；　the　bearing　and　rearing　of　children；　so　that　in　the



precise　degree　in　which　murder　is　hateful；　on　the　negative　side



of　idleness；　in　the　exact　degree　child…rearing　is　admirable；　on



the　positive　side　of　idleness。　For　which　reason；　and　because　of



the　honour　that　there　is　in　rearing　children；（26*）　while　the　wife



is　said　to　be　as　the　vine　（for　cheering）；　the　children　are　as　the



olive　branch；　for　praise：　nor