utilitarianism-第16部分

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　〃desirable〃　are　synonymous　terms？　If　there　is　any　anterior　principle　implied；　it　can　be　no　other　than　this；　that　the　truths　of　arithmetic　are　applicable　to　the　valuation　of　happiness；　as　of　all　other　measurable　quantities。　　　＇Mr。　Herbert　Spencer；　in　a　private　communication　on　the　subject　of　the　preceding　Note；　objects　to　being　considered　an　opponent　of　utilitarianism；　and　states　that　he　regards　happiness　as　the　ultimate　end　of　morality；　but　deems　that　end　only　partially　attainable　by　empirical　generalisations　from　the　observed　results　of　conduct；　and　completely　attainable　only　by　deducing；　from　the　laws　of　life　and　the　conditions　of　existence；　what　kinds　of　action　necessarily　tend　to　produce　happiness；　and　what　kinds　to　produce　unhappiness。　What　the　exception　of　the　word　〃necessarily；〃　I　have　no　dissent　to　express　from　this　doctrine；　and　（omitting　that　word）　I　am　not　aware　that　any　modern　advocate　of　utilitarianism　is　of　a　different　opinion。　Bentham；　certainly；　to　whom　in　the　Social　Statics　Mr。　Spencer　particularly　referred；　is；　least　of　all　writers；　chargeable　with　unwillingness　to　deduce　the　effect　of　actions　on　happiness　from　the　laws　of　human　nature　and　the　universal　conditions　of　human　life。　The　common　charge　against　him　is　of　relying　too　exclusively　upon　such　deductions；　and　declining　altogether　to　be　bound　by　the　generalisations　from　specific　experience　which　Mr。　Spencer　thinks　that　utilitarians　generally　confine　themselves　to。　My　own　opinion　（and；　as　I　collect；　Mr。　Spencer's）　is；　that　in　ethics；　as　in　all　other　branches　of　scientific　study；　the　consilience　of　the　results　of　both　these　processes；　each　corroborating　and　verifying　the　other；　is　requisite　to　give　to　any　general　proposition　the　kind　degree　of　evidence　which　constitutes　scientific　proof。＇

　　It　appears　from　what　has　been　said；　that　justice　is　a　name　for　certain　moral　requirements；　which；　regarded　collectively；　stand　higher　in　the　scale　of　social　utility；　and　are　therefore　of　more　paramount　obligation；　than　any　others；　though　particular　cases　may　occur　in　which　some　other　social　duty　is　so　important；　as　to　overrule　any　one　of　the　general　maxims　of　justice。　Thus；　to　save　a　life；　it　may　not　only　be　allowable；　but　a　duty；　to　steal；　or　take　by　force；　the　necessary　food　or　medicine；　or　to　kidnap；　and　compel　to　officiate；　the　only　qualified　medical　practitioner。　In　such　cases；　as　we　do　not　call　anything　justice　which　is　not　a　virtue；　we　usually　say；　not　that　justice　must　give　way　to　some　other　moral　principle；　but　that　what　is　just　in　ordinary　cases　is；　by　reason　of　that　other　principle；　not　just　in　the　particular　case。　By　this　useful　accommodation　of　language；　the　character　of　indefeasibility　attributed　to　justice　is　kept　up；　and　we　are　saved　from　the　necessity　of　maintaining　that　there　can　be　laudable　injustice。　　　The　considerations　which　have　now　been　adduced　resolve；　I　conceive；　the　only　real　difficulty　in　the　utilitarian　theory　of　morals。　It　has　always　been　evident　that　all　cases　of　justice　are　also　cases　of　expediency：　the　difference　is　in　the　peculiar　sentiment　which　attaches　to　the　former；　as　contradistinguished　from　the　latter。　If　this　characteristic　sentiment　has　been　sufficiently　accounted　for；　if　there　is　no　necessity　to　assume　for　it　any　peculiarity　of　origin；　if　it　is　simply　the　natural　feeling　of　resentment；　moralised　by　being　made　coextensive　with　the　demands　of　social　good；　and　if　this　feeling　not　only　does　but　ought　to　exist　in　all　the　classes　of　cases　to　which　the　idea　of　justice　corresponds；　that　idea　no　longer　presents　itself　as　a　stumbling…block　to　the　utilitarian　ethics。　　　Justice　remains　the　appropriate　name　for　certain　social　utilities　which　are　vastly　more　important；　and　therefore　more　absolute　and　imperative；　than　any　others　are　as　a　class　（though　not　more　so　than　others　may　be　in　particular　cases）；　and　which；　therefore；　ought　to　be；　as　well　as　naturally　are；　guarded　by　a　sentiment　not　only　different　in　degree；　but　also　in　kind；　distinguished　from　the　milder　feeling　which　attaches　to　the　mere　idea　of　promoting　human　pleasure　or　convenience；　at　once　by　the　more　definite　nature　of　its　commands；　and　by　the　sterner　character　of　its　sanctions。

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