lecture vi-第6部分

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Emperor。　The　majority　in　each　committee；　seeing　that　it　was
impossible　under　present　circumstances　to　maintain　their　old
rights　over　the　person　of　the　serf；　consented　to　recognise　his
freedom；　and　that　without　pay。　They　were　anxious　about　one　thing
alone　　to　retain　as　far　as　possible　in　their　own　hands　the　land
actually　possessed　by　the　peasant。　This　feeling　was　the　stronger
where　the　soil　was　rich；　as　was　the　case　in　the　Central　and
Southern　Governments；　where　the　black　soil　prevails。　It　was　less
so　in　the　west　and　north；　where　the　ground　yielded　but　a　small
rent。　We　find　a　complete　unanimity　between　the　utterances　of　the
central　and　southern　nobles；　both　insisting　on　the　necessity　of
limiting　the　expropriation　of　the　land　in　favour　of　the　peasants
to　that　occupied　by　their　homesteads；　whilst　in　the　north　more
than　one　committee　consented　to　extend　this　to　the　arable　land
and　the　undivided　common。
　　　　The　provincial　committees　were　almost　unanimous　（I　speak　of
course　only　of　the　majority　of　their　members）　in　their　request
that　the　individual　shares　of　each　peasant　household　should　be
readjusted　according　to　a　certain　maximum　and　minimum　fixed　for
each　province。　Many　a　committee　insisted　on　the　maintenance　of
feudal　police；　if　not　of　feudal　justice；　and　all　showed　an　equal
interest　in　the　suppression　of　the　uncontrolled　power　of　the
bureaucracy　in　matters　of　provincial　administration。
　　　　The　minorities　of　almost　every　committee；　who　were　more　or
less　influenced　by　the　press；　approached　much　more　nearly　in
their　request　to　the　views　entertained　by　the　majority　in　the
central　committee。　They　gave　their　consent　to　the　plan　of
expropriating　in　favour　of　the　peasants　a　part　of　the　noblemen's
lands；　they　insisted　on　the　participation　of　the　Government　in
the　act　of　redeeming　the　area　formerly　allotted　by　the　landlords
to　the　serfs　of　their　respective　manors；　they　strongly　opposed
the　scheme　of　a　transitory　state　in　which　the　peasant；　unable　to
buy　back　the　land　he　owned；　was　condemned　to　continue　his　villein
service　and　his　feudal　dues　or　payments　in　kind。　At　the　same　time
they　put　forward　certain　general　demands　which　went　much　beyond
the　promises　already　given　by　the　Government。　They　made　requests
for　a　general　change　in　the　existing　system　of　provincial
administration。　According　to　these　bureaucracy　should　give　place
to　a　system　of　local　self…government。　They　insisted　on　the
necessity　of　amending　the　deficient　judicial　organisation。　They
demanded　trial　by　jury　and　liberty　of　the　press。　Some　of　the
members　went　even　so　far　as　to　draw　up　a　resolution　in　favour　of
the　general　representation　of　the　people　and　the　revival　of　the
ancient　system　of　National　Councils；　the　Sobors。
　　　　We　must　not　lose　sight　of　these　political　requirements　if　we
wish　to　understand　why　it　was　that　the　Government；　as　soon　as　the
deputies　both　of　the　majority　and　the　minority　of　provincial
committees　were　assembled　in　Petersburg；　hindered　their　general
meetings。　It　was　but　separately　that　each　of　the　delegates　was
admitted　to　put　forward　his　requests；　and　to　give　oral　advice　to
the　members　of　the　general　committee。　This　mistrust　on　the　part
of　the　Government　embittered　more　than　one　of　the　delegates
against　the　members　of　the　central　committee；　and　threw　them　into
the　arms　of　that　minority　which；　in　the　central　committee　itself；
defended　the　interests　of　the　nobility。　It　was　chiefly　composed
of　the　〃Marshal〃　of　the　Petersburg　nobility；　Count　Peter
Schouvalov；　Mr　Aprakasin；　who　occupied　the　same　post　in　the
Government　of　Orel；　and　Mr　Posen；　the　delegate　of　Pultawa。　These
three　gentlemen　insisted　on　the　desirability　of　keeping　the　land
in　the　hands　of　the　nobility；　and　of　granting　to　the　peasantry
only　a　sort　of　soccage…tenure；　or　〃censive；〃　on　the　land　they
occupied。　Whilst　the　majority　of　the　committee　insisted　on　the
direct　interference　of　the　Government　in　the　redemption　of　the
noblemen's　land；　and　the　propriety　of　putting　an　end　to
villein…service；　at　any　rate　after　a　period　of　twelve　years；
these　gentlemen　were　in　favour　of　leaving　to　a　free　contract；
entered　into　by　the　manorial　lord　and　his　former　serfs；　the
difficult　task　of　settling　their　future　relations。　It　was　in　the
house　of　Schouvalov　that　the　discontented　delegates　regularly
assembled；　it　was　there　that　they　drew　up　this　protest　against
the　action　of　the　central　committee　and　the　so…called
〃encroachments　of　the　bureaucracy。〃　Their　appeal；　made　in　the
form　of　a　pamphlet；　published　in　Leipsig；　and　addressed　to　the
new　delegates　summoned　to　Petersburg　from　the　provinces　not
hitherto　represented；　found　a　ready　hearing；　and　the　Government
encountered　in　these　new　helpers　even　a　larger　amount　of　mistrust
and　ill…will　than　that　already　shown　by　their　predecessors。
　　　　This　time　the　opposition　of　the　nobility　was　of　much　greater
consequence。　General　Rostovzov；　whose　influence　over　the　Czar　was
very　great；　died　suddenly；　before　the　completion　of　the　work
entrusted　to　his　care；　and　Count　Panin；　an　avowed　foe　to　the
action　of　the　committee；　became　its　President。　He　did　his　best　to
induce　the　members　to　abandon　their　former　decision；　and　it　is
only　to　the　firmness　of　character　shown　by　men　like　Nicholas
Milutine；　that　we　are　indebted　for　the　strict　maintenance　of　the
general　outlines　of　the　form　already　elaborated。　Finding　himself
powerless　to　change　the　decisions　of　the　committee；　Panin　tried
to　arouse　some　opposition　to　the　scheme　published　by　it；　among
the　ranks　of　that　general　committee　of　which　the　committee　for
the　elaboration　of　the　law　of　emancipation　was　but　a　section。　He
tried　to　achieve　the　same　ends　in　the　Council　of　State；　where　the
scheme　of　the　new　law　had　finally　to　be　discussed。　Happily　the
time　allowed　for　the　debates　was　very　limited；　as　the　Government
insisted　on　the　immediate　realisation　of　the　long…promised
〃liberty。〃　They　lasted　in　the　general　committee　but　a　few　months；
while　in　the　Council　of　State　they　were　limited　to　a　fortnight。
It　is　due　to　this　fact　that　neither　of　the　two　boards　introduced
very　extensive　amendments　in　the　emancipation　law。　Those　they　did
make　were　all　in　favour　of　the　nobility。　The　most　mischievous
consisted　in　the　considerable　diminution　of　the　maximum　and
minimum　shares　accorded　to　the　peasant；　and　in　the　resolution
that　no　rights　would　be　recognised　as　belonging　to　the　villagers
in　the　common　pastures　of　the　manor。　The　interests　of　the
peasants　were　also　sacrificed　in　the　permission　which　was　given
to　the　landlords　to　diminish　the　shares　of　the　peasants；　on　the
condition　of　renouncing　all　remuneration　for　the　ground　which
they　ceded。　In　all　these　measures　the　demands　of　the　nobles　were
complied　with。
　　　　But　the　great　ends　at　which　the　reformers　aimed；　the
liberation；　that　is　to　say；　of　the　peasant　from　all　personal
dependence　on　the　manorial　lord；　and　the　securing　to　him　the
right　of　possessing　land　in　common；　were　nevertheless　attained。
The　law　of　February　19；　1861；　was　the　beginning　of　a　new　era　
an　era　of　democratic　development；　as　well　as　of　economic　and
social　growth；　for　the　immense　Empire　of　the　Czars。　For　there　is
no　doubt　about　the　vast　influence　which　the　law　of　1861　has
exercised　in　all　directions。　It　is　that　which　made　more　than
twenty　millions　of　people　at　once　the　free　disposers　of　their　own
destinies　and　the　communistic　owners　of　the　land。　Villein
services；　rents　in　kind　and　in　money；　feudal　monopolies；　and
manorial　jurisdiction；　ceased　to　exist；　and　the　peasant　became
the　member　of　a　self…governing　body；　or　the　Mir。　The　ideas　of
social　justice　and　of　equality　before　the　law　　ideas　hitherto
cherished　but　by　a　few　dreamers　such　as　Radischev　and　Herzen；　or
revolutionists　like　those　so…called　〃Decembrists；〃　who　organised
the　rebellion　of　December　24；　1825　　made　their　triumphant　entry
into　the　Russian　world；　working　a　complete　change　in　the
organisation　of　public　schools；　admitting　the　son　of　the　peasant
to　sit　side　by　side　with　the　son　of　the　nobleman　and　the　merchant
in　the　same　grammar　school　and　the　same　university；
revolutionising　both　official　circles　and　the　drawing…room；
admitting　to　both　persons　of　low。　birth　but　high　education。
　　　　The　emancipation　of　the　serf　certainly　was　not　carried　out
without　some　loss　to　the　land…owning　gentry；　but　the　squire　soon
recovered　from　the　state　into　which　he　was　brought　by　his
inexperience　in　the　management　of　his　estate　without　the　help　of
unpaid　servants。　Capital　was　invested　in　land；　agricultural
machines　were　introduced；　the　yearly　income　began　to　rise
rapidly；　and　with　it　the　value　of　the　land　was　augmented。　It　was
partly　enhanced　by　the　fact　that　it　was　thrown　open　to　the　free
purchase　of　all　classes　of　society；　while　previous　to　the　reform
the　higher　class　alone　was　entitled　to　own　it。　Instead　of
abandoning　the　tillage　of　the　fields；　according　to　the
expectation　of　some　pessimists；　the　liberated　serf　soon　became
the　regular　farmer　of　the　lands　possessed　by　the　gentry；　and
entire　village　communities　have　been　seen　during　these　last　few
years　renting；　under　conditions　of　mutual　responsibility；　the
land　of　a　neighbouring　estate。
　　　　If　we　investigate　the　indirect　results　of　the　great　reform
accomplished　by　the　Emperor　Alexander；　we　are　first　struck　by　the
fact　that　it　involved　the　necessity　of　a　complete　change　in
provincial　administration。　Justice　and　police　had　hitherto　been
in　the　hands　of　persons　elected　by　the　nobility。　This　could　no
longer　be　tolerated　the　moment　the　serf　was　liberated　from　his
previous　subjection　to　the　noble　and　squire。　A　system　of
provincial　self…government；　based　on　the　principle　of
representation　of　the　whole　land…owning　class；　both　private
proprietors　and　those　possessing　land　in　common；　was　introduced
in　its　stead。　The　organization　of　justice　was　completely　changed；
learned　jurists　occupying　the　place　of　the　ignorant　magistrates
of　old　who　had　been　appointed　by　the　provincial　gentry。　The
people；　as　members　of　juries；　were　admitted　to　a　share　in　the
exercise　of　criminal　justice。　The　transformation　of　the　medieval
State　into　one　that　answered　to　the　requirements　of　modern
civilisation　would　have　been　completed　if　the　Liberat