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contradistinction　to；　their　own　persons。　They　are　not　wealth　to

themselves；　though　they　are　means　of　acquiring　it。

　　　　It　has　been　proposed　to　define　wealth　as　signifying

〃instruments：〃　meaning　not　tools　and　machinery　alone；　but　the

whole　accumulation　possessed　by　individuals　or　communities；　of

means　for　the　attainment　of　their　ends。　Thus；　a　field　is　an

instrument；　because　it　is　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　corn。　Corn

is　an　instrument；　being　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　flour。　Flour

is　an　instrument；　being　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　bread。　Bread

is　an　instrument；　as　a　means　to　the　satisfaction　of　hunger　and　to

the　support　of　life。　Here　we　at　last　arrive　at　things　which　are

not　instruments；　being　desired　on　their　own　account；　and　not　as

mere　means　to　something　beyond。　This　view　of　the　subject　is

philosophically　correct；　or　rather；　this　mode　of　expression　may

be　usefully　employed　along　with　others；　not　as　conveying　a

different　view　of　the　subject　from　the　common　one；　but　as　giving

more　distinctness　and　reality　to　the　common　view。　It　departs；

however；　too　widely　from　the　custom　of　language；　to　be　likely　to

obtain　general　acceptance；　or　to　be　of　use　for　any　other　purpose

than　that　of　occasional　illustration。

　　　　Wealth；　then；　may　be　defined；　all　useful　or　agreeable　things

which　possess　exchangeable　value；　or；　in　other　words；　all　useful

or　agreeable　things　except　those　which　can　be　obtained；　in　the

quantity　desired；　without　labour　or　sacrifice。　To　this

definition；　the　only　objection　seems　to　be；　that　it　leaves　in

uncertainty　a　question　which　has　been　much　debated　　whether

what　are　called　immaterial　products　are　to　be　considered　as

wealth：　whether；　for　example；　the　skill　of　a　workman；　or　any

other　natural　or　acquired　power　of　body　or　mind；　shall　be　called

wealth；　or　not：　a　question；　not　of　very　great　importance；　and

which；　so　far　as　requiring　discussion；　will　be　more　conveniently

considered　in　another　place。

　　　　These　things　having　been　premised　respecting　wealth；　we　shall

next　turn　our　attention　to　the　extraordinary　differences　in

respect　to　it；　which　exist　between　nation　and　nation；　and　between

different　ages　of　the　world；　differences　both　in　the　quantity　of

wealth；　and　in　the　kind　of　it；　as　well　as　in　the　manner　in　which

the　wealth　existing　in　the　community　is　shared　among　its　members。

　　　　There　is　perhaps；　no　people　or　community；　now　existing；　which

subsists　entirely　on　the　spontaneous　produce　of　vegetation。　But

many　tribes　still　live　exclusively；　or　almost　exclusively；　on

wild　animals；　the　produce　of　hunting　or　fishing。　Their　clothing

is　skins；　their　habitations；　huts　rudely　formed　of　logs　or　boughs

of　trees；　and　abandoned　at　an　hour's　notice。　The　food　they　use

being　little　susceptible　of　storing　up；　they　have　no　accumulation

of　it；　and　are　often　exposed　to　great　privations。　The　wealth　of

such　a　community　consists　solely　of　the　skins　they　wear；　a　few

ornaments；　the　taste　for　which　exists　among　most　savages；　some

rude　utensils；　the　weapons　with　which　they　kill　their　game；　or

fight　against　hostile　competitors　for　the　means　of　subsistence；

canoes　for　crossing　rivers　and　lakes；　or　fishing　in　the　sea；　and

perhaps　some　furs　or　other　productions　of　the　wilderness；

collected　to　be　exchanged　with　civilized　people　for　blankets；

brandy；　and　tobacco；　of　which　foreign　produce　also　there　may　be

some　unconsumed　portion　in　store。　To　this　scanty　inventory　of

material　wealth；　ought　to　be　added　their　land；　an　instrument　of

production　of　which　they　make　slender　use；　compared　with　more

settled　communities；　but　which　is　still　the　source　of　their

subsistence；　and　which　has　a　marketable　value　if　there　be　any

agricultural　community　in　the　neighbourhood　requiring　more　land

than　it　possesses。　This　is　the　state　of　greatest　poverty　in　which

any　entire　community　of　human　beings　is　known　to　exist；　though

there　are　much　richer　communities　in　which　portions　of　the

inhabitants　are　in　a　condition；　as　to　subsistence　and　comfort；　as

little　enviable　as　that　of　the　savage。

　　　　The　first　great　advance　beyond　this　state　consists　in　the

domestication　of　the　more　useful　animals；　giving　rise　to　the

pastoral　or　nomad　state；　in　which　mankind　do　not　live　on　the

produce　of　hunting；　but　on　milk　and　its　products；　and　on　the

annual　increase　of　flocks　and　herds。　This　condition　is　not　only

more　desirable　in　itself；　but　more　conducive　to　further　progress：

and　a　much　more　considerable　amount　of　wealth　is　accumulated

under　it。　So　long　as　the　vast　natural　pastures　of　the　earth　are

not　yet　so　fully　occupied　as　to　be　consumed　more　rapidly　than

they　are　spontaneously　reproduced；　a　large　and　constantly

increasing　stock　of　subsistence　may　be　collected　and　preserved；

with　little　other　labour　than　that　of　guarding　the　cattle　from

the　attacks　of　wild　beasts；　and　from　the　force　or　wiles　of

predatory　men。　Large　flocks　and　herds；　therefore；　are　in　time

possessed；　by　active　and　thrifty　individuals　through　their　own

exertions；　and　by　the　heads　of　families　and　tribes　through　the

exertions　of　those　who　are　connected　with　them　by　allegiance。

There　thus　arises；　in　the　shepherd　state；　inequality　of

possessions；　a　thing　which　scarcely　exists　in　the　savage　state；

where　no　one　has　much　more　than　absolute　necessaries；　and　in　case

of　deficiency　must　share　even　those　with　his　tribe。　In　the　nomad

state；　some　have　an　abundance　of　cattle；　sufficient　for　the　food

of　a　multitude；　while　others　have　not　contrived　to　appropriate

and　retain　any　superfluity；　or　perhaps　any　cattle　at　all。　But

subsistence　has　ceased　to　be　precarious；　since　the　more

successful　have　no　other　use　which　they　can　make　of　their　surplus

than　to　feed　the　less　fortunate；　while　every　increase　in　the

number　of　persons　connected　with　them　is　an　increase　both　of

security　and　of　power：　and　thus　they　are　enabled　to　divest

themselves　of　all　labour　except　that　of　government　and

superintendence；　and　acquire　dependents　to　fight　for　them　in　war

and　to　serve　them　in　peace。　One　of　the　features　of　this　state　of

society　is；　that　a　part　of　the　community；　and　in　some　degree　even

the　whole　of　it；　possess　leisure。　Only　a　portion　of　time　is

required　for　procuring　food；　and　the　remainder　is　not　engrossed

by　anxious　thought　for　the　morrow；　or　necessary　repose　from

muscular　activity。　Such　a　life　is　highly　favourable　to　the　growth

of　new　wants；　and　opens　a　possibility　of　their　gratification。　A

desire　arises　for　better　clothing；　utensils；　and　implements；　than

the　savage　state　contents　itself　with；　and　the　surplus　food

renders　it　practicable　to　devote　to　these　purposes　the　exertions

of　a　part　of　the　tribe。　In　all　or　most　nomad　communities　we　find

domestic　manufactures　of　a　coarse；　and　in　some；　of　a　fine　kind。

There　is　ample　evidence　that　while　those　parts　of　the　world　which

have　been　the　cradle　of　modern　civilization　were　still　generally

in　the　nomad　state；　considerable　skill　had　been　attained　in

spinning；　weaving；　and　dyeing　woollen　garments；　in　the

preparation　of　leather；　and　in　what　appears　a　still　more

difficult　invention；　that　of　working　in　metals。　Even　speculative

science　took　its　first　beginnings　from　the　leisure　characteristic

of　this　stage　of　social　progress。　The　earliest　astronomical

observations　are　attributed；　by　a　tradition　which　has　much

appearance　of　truth；　to　the　shepherds　of　Chaldea。

　　　　From　this　state　of　society　to　the　agricultural　the　transition

is　not　indeed　easy　（for　no　great　change　in　the　habits　of　mankind

is　otherwise　than　difficult；　and　in　general　either　painful　or

very　slow）；　but　it　lies　in　what　may　be　called　the　spontaneous

corse　of　events。　The　growth　of　the　population　of　men　and　cattle

began　in　time　to　press　upon　the　earth's　capabilities　of　yielding

natural　pasture：　and　this　cause　doubtless　produced　the　first

tilling　of　the　ground；　just　as　at　a　later　period　the　same　cause

made　the　superfluous　hordes　of　the　nations　which　had　remained

nomad　precipitate　themselves　upon　those　which　had　already　become

agricultural；　until；　these　having　become　sufficiently　powerful　to

repel　such　inroads；　the　invading　nations；　deprived　of　this

outlet；　were　obliged　also　to　become　agricultural　communities。

　　　　But　after　this　great　step　had　been　completed；　the　subsequent

progress　of　mankind　seems　by　no　means　to　have　been　so　rapid

（certain　rare　combinations　of　circumstances　excepted）　as　might

perhaps　have　been　anticipated。　The　quantity　of　human　food　which

the　earth　is　capable　of　returning　even　to　the　most　wretched

system　of　agriculture；　so　much　exceeds　what　could　be　obtained　in

the　purely　pastoral　state；　that　a　great　increase　of　population　is

invariably　the　result。　But　this　additional　food　is　only　obtained

by　a　great　additional　amount　of　labour；　so　that　not　only　an

agricultural　has　much　less　leisure　than　a　pastoral　population；

but；　with　the　imperfect　tools　and　unskilful　processes　which　are

for　a　long　time　employed　（and　which　over　the　greater　part　of　the

earth　have　not　even　yet　been　abandoned）；　agriculturists　do　not；

unless　in　unusually　advantageous　circumstances　of　climate　and

soil；　produce　so　great　a　surplus　of　food；　beyond　their　necessary

consumption；　as　to　support　any　large　class　of　labourers　engaged

in　other　departments　of　industry。　The　surplus；　too；　whether　small

or　great；　is　usually　torn　from　the　producers；　either　by　the

government　to　which　they　are　subject；　or　by　individuals；　who　by

superior　force；　or　by　availing　themselves　of　religious　or

traditional　feelings　of　subordination；　have　established

themselves　as　lords　of　the　soil。

　　　　The　first　of　these　modes　of　appropriation；　by　the　government；

is　characteristic　of　the　extensive　monarchies　which　from　a　time

beyond　historical　record　have　occupied　the　plains　of　Asia。　The

government；　in　those　countries；　though　varying　in　its　qualities

according　to　the　accidents　of　personal　character；　seldom　leaves

much　to　the　cultivators　beyond　mere　necessaries；　and　often　strips

t