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prosperity；　while　the　ascendant　community　obtained　a　surplus　of

wealth；　available　for　purposes　of　collective　luxury　or

magnificence。　From　such　a　surplus　the　Parthenon　and　the　Propylaea

were　built；　the　sculptures　of　Pheidias　paid　for；　and　the

festivals　celebrated；　for　which　AEschylus；　Sophocles；　Euripides；

and　Aristophanes　composed　their　dramas。　But　this　state　of

political　relations；　most　useful；　while　it　lasted；　to　the

progress　and　ultimate　interest　of　mankind；　had　not　the　elements

of　durability。　A　small　conquering　community　which　does　not

incorporate　its　conquests；　always　ends　by　being　conquered。

Universal　dominion；　therefore；　at　last　rested　with　the　people　who

practised　this　art　　with　the　Romans；　who；　whatever　were　their

other　devices；　always　either　began　or　ended　by　taking　a　great

part　of　the　land　to　enrich　their　own　leading　citizens；　and　by

adopting　into　the　governing　body　the　principal　possessors　of　the

remainder。　It　is　unnecessary　to　dwell　on　the　melancholy

economomical　history　of　the　Roman　empire。　When　inequality　of

wealth　once　commences；　in　a　community　not　constantly　engaged　in

repairing　by　industry　the　injuries　of　fortune；　its　advances　are

gigantic；　the　great　masses　of　wealth　swallow　up　the　smaller。　The

Roman　empire　ultimately　became　covered　with　the　vast　landed

possessions　of　a　comparatively　few　families；　for　whose　luxury；

and　still　more　for　whose　ostentation；　the　most　costly　products

were　raised；　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants　in　a　while　the

condition。　cultivators　of　the　soil　were　slaves；　or　small　tenants

in　nearly　servile　condition。　From　this　time　the　weaLth　of　the

empire　progressively　declined。　In　the　beginning；　the　public

revenues；　and　the　resources　of　rich　individuals；　sufficed　at

least　to　cover　Italy　with　splendid　edifices；　public　and　private；

but　at　length　so　dwindled　under　the　enervating　influences　of

misgovernment；　that　what　remained　was　not　even　sufficient　to　keep

those　edifices　from　decay。　The　strength　and　riches　of　the

civilized　world　became　inadequate　to　make　head　against　the　nomad

population　which　skirted　its　northern　frontier；　they　overran　the

empire；　and　a　different　order　of　things　succeeded。

　　　　In　the　new　frame　in　which　European　society　was　now　cast；　the

population　of　each　country　may　be　considered　as　composed；　in

unequal　proportions；　of　two　distinct　nations　or　races；　the

conquerors　and　the　conquered：　the　first　the　proprietors　of　the

land；　the　latter　the　tillers　of　it。　These　tillers　were　allowed　to

occupy　the　land　on　conditions　which；　being　the　product　of　force；

were　always　onerous；　but　seldom　to　the　extent　of　absolute

slavery。　Already；　in　the　later　times　of　the　Roman　empire；　predial

slavery　had　extensively　transformed　itself　into　a　kind　of

serfdom：　the　coloni　of　the　Romans　were　rather　villeins　than

actual　slaves；　and　the　incapacity　and　distaste　of　the　barbarian

conquerors　for　personally　superintending　industrial　occupations；

left　no　alternative　but　to　allow　to　the　cultivators；　as　an

incentive　to　exertion；　some　real　interest　in　the　soil。　If；　for

example；　they　were　compelled　to　labour；　three　days　in　the　week；

for　their　superior；　the　produce　of　the　remaining　days　was　their

own。　If　they　were　required　to　supply　the　provisions　of　various

sorts；　ordinarily　needed　for　the　consumption　of　the　castle；　and

were　often　subject　to　requisitions　in　excess；　yet　after　supplying

these　demands　they　were　suffered　to　dispose　at　their　will　of

whatever　additional　produce　they　could　raise。　Under　this　system

during　the　Middle　Ages　it　was　not　impossible；　no　more　than　in

modern　Russia　（where；　up　to　the　recent　measure　of　emancipation；

the　same　system　still　essentially　prevailed）；　for　serfs　to

acquire　property；　and　in　fact；　their　accumulations　are　the

primitive　source　of　the　wealth　of　modern　Europe。

　　　　In　that　age　of　violence　and　disorder；　the　first　use　made　by　a

serf　of　any　small　provision　which　he　had　been　able　to　accumulate；

was　to　buy　his　freedom　and　withdraw　himself　to　some　town　or

fortified　village；　which　had　remained　undestroyed　from　the　time

of　the　Roman　dominion；　or；　without　buying　his　freedom；　to　abscond

thither。　In　that　place　of　refuge；　surrounded　by　others　of　his　own

class。　he　attempted　to　live；　secured　in　some　measure　from　the

outrages　and　exactions　of　the　warrior　caste；　by　his　own　prowess

and　that　of　his　fellows。　These　emancipated　serfs　mostly　became

artificers；　and　lived　by　exchanging　the　produce　of　their　industry

for　the　surplus　food　and　material　which　the　soil　yielded　to　its

feudal　proprietors。　This　gave　rise　to　a　sort　of　European

counterpart　of　the　economical　condition　of　Asiatic　countries；

except　that；　in　lieu　of　a　single　monarch　and　a　fluctuating　body

of　favourites　and　employ閟；　there　was　a　numerous　and　in　a

considerable　degree　fixed　class　of　great　landholders；　exhibiting

far　less　splendour；　because　individually　disposing　of　a　much

smaller　surplus　produce；　and　for　a　long　time　expending　the　chief

part　of　it　in　maintaining　the　body　of　retainers　whom　the　warlike

habits　of　society；　and　the　little　protection　afforded　by

government；　rendered　indispensable　to　their　safety。　The　greater

stability；　the　fixity　of　personal　position；　which　this　state　of

society　afforded；　in　comparison　with　the　Asiatic　polity　to　which

it　economically　corresponded；　was　one　main　reason　why　it　was　also

found　more　favourable　to　improvement。　From　this　time　the

economical　advancement　of　society　has　not　been　further

interrupted。　Security　of　person　and　property　grew　slowly；　but

steadily。　the　arts　of　life　made　constant　progress；　plunder　ceased

to　be　the　principal　source　of　accumulation；　and　feudal　Europe

ripened　into　commercial　and　manufacturing　Europe。　In　the　latter

part　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　towns　of　Italy　and　Flanders；　the

free　cities　of　Germany；　and　some　towns　of　France　and　England；

contained　a　large　and　energetic　population　of　artisans；　and　many

rich　burghers；　whose　wealth　had　been　acquired　by　manufacturing

industry；　or　by　trading　in　the　produce　of　such　industry。　The

Commons　of　England；　the　Tiers…Etat　of　France；　the　bourgeoisie　of

the　Continent　generally；　are　the　descendants　of　this　class。　As

these　were　a　saving　class；　while　the　posterity　of　the　feudal

aristocracy　were　a　squandering　class；　the　former　by　degrees

substituted　themselves　for　the　latter　as　the　owners　of　a　great

proportion　of　the　land。　This　natural　tendency　was　in　some　cases

retarded　by　laws　contrived　for　the　purpose　of　detaining　the　land

in　the　families　of　its　existing　possessors；　in　other　cases

accelerated　by　political　revolutions。　Gradually；　though　more

slowly；　the　immediate　cultivators　of　the　soil；　in　all　the　more

civilized　countries；　ceased　to　be　in　a　servile　or　semi…servile

state：　though　the　legal　position；　as　well　as　the　economical

condition　attained　by　them；　vary　extremely　in　the　different

nations　of　Europe；　and　in　the　great　communities　which　have　been

founded　beyond　the　Atlantic　by　the　descendants　of　Europeans。

　　　　The　world　now　contains　several　extensive　regions；　provided

with　the　various　ingredients　of　wealth　in　a　degree　of　abundance

of　which　former　ages　had　not　even　the　idea。　Without　compulsory

labour；　an　enormous　mass　of　food　is　annuaLly　extracted　from　the

soil；　and　maintains；　besides　the　actual　producers；　an　equal；

sometimes　a　greater　number　of　labourers；　occupied　in　producing

conveniences　and　luxuries　of　innumerable　kinds；　or　in

transporting　them　from　place　to　place；　also　a　multitude　of

persons　employed　in　directing　and　superintending　these　various

labours；　and　over　and　above　all　these；　a　class　more　numerous　than

in　the　most　luxurious　ancient　societies；　of　persons　whose

occupations　are　of　a　kind　not　directly　productive；　and　of　persons

who　have　no　occupation　at　all。　The　food　thus　raised　supports　a

far　larger　population　than　had　ever　existed　（at　least　in　the　same

regions）　on　an　equal　space　of　ground；　and　supports　them　with

certainty；　exempt　from　those　periodically　recurring　famines　so

abundant　in　the　early　history　of　Europe；　and　in　Oriental

countries　even　now　not　unfrequent。　Besides　this　great　increase　in

the　quantity　of　food；　it　has　greatly　improved　in　quality　and

variety；　while　conveniences　and　luxuries；　other　than　food；　are　no

longer　limited　to　a　small　and　opulent　class；　but　descend；　in

great　abundance；　through　many　widening　strata　in　society。　The

collective　resources　of　one　of　these　communities；　when　it　chooses

to　put　them　forth　for　any　unexpected　purpose；　its　ability　to

maintain　fleets　and　armies；　to　execute　public　works；　either

useful　or　ornamental；　to　perform　national　acts　of　beneficence

like　the　ransom　of　the　West　India　slaves；　to　found　colonies；　to

have　its　people　taught；　to　do　anything　in　short　which　requires

expense；　and　to　do　it　with　no　sacrifice　of　the　necessaries　or

even　the　substantial　comforts　of　its　inhabitants；　are　such　as　the

world　never　saw　before。

　　　　But　in　all　these　particulars；　characteristic　of　the　modern

industrial　communities；　those　communities　differ　widely　from　one

another。　Though　abounding　in　wealth　as　compared　with　former　ages；

they　do　so　in　very　different　degrees。　Even　of　the　countries　which

are　justly　accounted　the　richest；　some　have　made　a　more　complete

use　of　their　productive　resources；　and　have　obtained；　relatively

to　their　territorial　extent；　a　much　larger　produce；　than　others；

nor　do　they　differ　only　in　amount　of　wealth；　but　also　in　the

rapidity　of　its　increase。　The　diversities　in　the　distribution　of

wealth　are　still　greater　than　in　the　production。　There　are　great

differences　in　the　condition　of　the　poorest　class　in　different

countries；　and　in　the　proportional　numbers　and　opulence　of　the

classes　which　are　above　the　poorest。　The　very　nature　and

designation　of　the　classes　who　originally　share　among　them　the

produce　of　the　soil；　vary　not　a　little　in　different　places。　In

some；　the　landowners　are　a　class　in　themselves；　almost　entirely

separate　from　the　classes　engaged　in　industry