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justly　esteemed：　although　in　my　own　opinion；　the　moderns　are　far

advanced　beyond　them　in　this　line　of　science；　the　divine　finds　in　the

Greek　language　a　translation　of　his　primary　code；　of　more　importance

to　him　than　the　original　because　better　understood；　and；　in　the　same

language；　the　newer　code；　with　the　doctrines　of　the　earliest　fathers；

who　lived　and　wrote　before　the　simple　precepts　of　the　founder　of　this

most　benign　and　pure　of　all　systems　of　morality　became　frittered　into

subtleties　and　mysteries；　and　hidden　under　jargons　incomprehensible

to　the　human　mind。　　To　these　original　sources　he　must　now；　therefore；

return；　to　recover　the　virgin　purity　of　his　religion。　　The　lawyer

finds　in　the　Latin　language　the　system　of　civil　law　most　conformable

with　the　principles　of　justice　of　any　which　has　ever　yet　been

established　among　men；　and　from　which　much　has　been　incorporated　into

our　own。　　The　physician　as　good　a　code　of　his　art　as　has　been　given

us　to　this　day。　　Theories　and　systems　of　medicine；　indeed；　have　been

in　perpetual　change　from　the　days　of　the　good　Hippocrates　to　the　days

of　the　good　Rush；　but　which　of　them　is　the　true　one？　the　present；　to

be　sure；　as　long　as　it　is　the　present；　but　to　yield　its　place　in　turn

to　the　next　novelty；　which　is　then　to　become　the　true　system；　and　is

to　mark　the　vast　advance　of　medicine　since　the　days　of　Hippocrates。

Our　situation　is　certainly　benefited　by　the　discovery　of　some　new　and

very　valuable　medicines；　and　substituting　those　for　some　of　his　with

the　treasure　of　facts；　and　of　sound　observations　recorded　by　him

（mixed　to　be　sure　with　anilities　of　his　day）　and　we　shall　have　nearly

the　present　sum　of　the　healing　art。　　The　statesman　will　find　in　these

languages　history；　politics；　mathematics；　ethics；　eloquence；　love　of

country；　to　which　he　must　add　the　sciences　of　his　own　day；　for　which

of　them　should　be　unknown　to　him？　　And　all　the　sciences　must　recur　to

the　classical　languages　for　the　etymon；　and　sound　understanding　of

their　fundamental　terms。　　For　the　merchant　I　should　not　say　that　the

languages　are　a　necessary。　　Ethics；　mathematics；　geography；　political

economy；　history；　seem　to　constitute　the　immediate　foundations　of　his

calling。　　The　agriculturist　needs　ethics；　mathematics；　chemistry　and

natural　philosophy。　　The　mechanic　the　same。　　To　them　the　languages

are　but　ornament　and　comfort。　　I　know　it　is　often　said　there　have

been　shining　examples　of　men　of　great　abilities　in　all　the　businesses

of　life；　without　any　other　science　than　what　they　had　gathered　from

conversations　and　intercourse　with　the　world。　　But　who　can　say　what

these　men　would　not　have　been　had　they　started　in　the　science　on　the

shoulders　of　a　Demosthenes　or　Cicero；　of　a　Locke　or　Bacon；　or　a

Newton？　　To　sum　the　whole；　therefore；　it　may　truly　be　said　that　the

classical　languages　are　a　solid　basis　for　most；　and　an　ornament　to

all　the　sciences。




　　　　　　　　I　am　warned　by　my　aching　fingers　to　close　this　hasty　sketch；

and　to　place　here　my　last　and　fondest　wishes　for　the　advancement　of

our　country　in　the　useful　sciences　and　arts；　and　my　assurances　of

respect　and　esteem　for　the　Reviewer　of　the　Memoir　on　modern　Greek。







　　　　　　　　LIMITS　TO　JUDICIAL　REVIEW




　　　　　　　　_To　Judge　Spencer　Roane_

　　　　　　　　_Poplar　Forest；　September　6；　1819_




　　　　　　　　DEAR　SIR；　　I　had　read　in　the　Enquirer；　and　with　great

approbation；　the　pieces　signed　Hampden；　and　have　read　them　again　with

redoubled　approbation；　in　the　copies　you　have　been　so　kind　as　to　send

me。　　I　subscribe　to　every　tittle　of　them。　　They　contain　the　true

principles　of　the　revolution　of　1800；　for　that　was　as　real　a

revolution　in　the　principles　of　our　government　as　that　of　1776　was　in

its　form；　not　effected　indeed　by　the　sword；　as　that；　but　by　the

rational　and　peaceable　instrument　of　reform；　the　suffrage　of　the

people。　　The　nation　declared　its　will　by　dismissing　functionaries　of

one　principle；　and　electing　those　of　another；　in　the　two　branches；

executive　and　legisltaive；　submitted　to　their　election。　　Over　the

judiciary　department；　the　constitution　had　deprived　them　of　their

control。　　That；　therefore；　has　continued　the　reprobated　system；　and

although　new　matter　has　been　occasionally　incorporated　into　the　old；

yet　the　leaven　of　the　old　mass　seems　to　assimilate　to　itself　the　new；

and　after　twenty　years'　confirmation　of　the　federal　system　by　the

voice　of　the　nation；　declared　through　the　medium　of　elections；　we

find　the　judiciary　on　every　occasion；　still　driving　us　into

consolidation。




　　　　　　　　In　denying　the　right　they　usurp　of　exclusively　explaining　the

constitution；　I　go　further　than　you　do；　if　I　understand　rightly　your

quotation　from　the　Federalist；　of　an　opinion　that　〃the　judiciary　is

the　last　resort　in　relation　_to　the　other　departments_　of　the

government；　but　not　in　relation　to　the　rights　of　the　parties　to　the

compact　under　which　the　judiciary　is　derived。〃　If　this　opinion　be

sound；　then　indeed　is　our　constitution　a　complete　_felo　de　se_。　　For

intending　to　establish　three　departments；　co…ordinate　and

independent；　that　they　might　check　and　balance　one　another；　it　has

given；　according　to　this　opinion；　to　one　of　them　alone；　the　right　to

prescribe　rules　for　the　government　of　the　others；　and　to　that　one

too；　which　is　unelected　by；　and　independent　of　the　nation。　　For

experience　has　already　shown　that　the　impeachment　it　has　provided　is

not　even　a　scare…crow；　that　such　opinions　as　the　one　you　combat；　sent

cautiously　out；　as　you　observe　also；　by　detachment；　not　belonging　to

the　case　often；　but　sought　for　out　of　it；　as　if　to　rally　the　public

opinion　beforehand　to　their　views；　and　to　indicate　the　line　they　are

to　walk　in；　have　been　so　quietly　passed　over　as　never　to　have　excited

animadversion；　even　in　a　speech　of　any　one　of　the　body　entrusted　with

impeachment。　　The　constitution；　on　this　hypothesis；　is　a　mere　thing

of　wax　in　the　hands　of　the　judiciary；　which　they　may　twist　and　shape

into　any　form　they　please。　　It　should　be　remembered；　as　an　axiom　of

eternal　truth　in　politics；　that　whatever　power　in　any　government　is

independent；　is　absolute　also；　in　theory　only；　at　first；　while　the

spirit　of　the　people　is　up；　but　in　practice；　as　fast　as　that　relaxes。

Independence　can　be　trusted　nowhere　but　with　the　people　in　mass。

They　are　inherently　independent　of　all　but　moral　law。　　My

construction　of　the　constitution　is　very　different　from　that　you

quote。　　It　is　that　each　department　is　truly　independent　of　the

others；　and　has　an　equal　right　to　decide　for　itself　what　is　the

meaning　of　the　constitution　in　the　cases　submitted　to　its　action；　and

especially；　where　it　is　to　act　ultimately　and　without　appeal。　　I　will

explain　myself　by　examples；　which；　having　occurred　while　I　was　in

office；　are　better　known　to　me；　and　the　principles　which　governed

them。




　　　　　　　　A　legislature　had　passed　the　sedition　law。　　The　federal　courts

had　subjected　certain　individuals　to　its　penalties　of　fine　and

imprisonment。　　On　coming　into　office；　I　released　these　individuals　by

the　power　of　pardon　committed　to　executive　discretion；　which　could

never　be　more　properly　exercised　than　where　citizens　were　suffering

without　the　authority　of　law；　or；　which　was　equivalent；　under　a　law

unauthorized　by　the　constitution；　and　therefore　null。　　In　the　case　of

Marbury　and　Madison；　the　federal　judges　declared　that　commissions；

signed　and　sealed　by　the　President；　were　valid；　although　not

delivered。　　I　deemed　delivery　essential　to　complete　a　deed；　which；　as

long　as　it　remains　in　the　hands　of　the　party；　is　as　yet　no　deed；　it

is　in　_posse_　only；　but　not　in　_esse_；　and　I　withheld　delivery　of　the

commissions。　　They　cannot　issue　a　mandamus　to　the　President　or

legislature；　or　to　any　of　their　officers　（*）。　　When　the　British

treaty　of　…　arrived；　without　any　provision　against　the

impressment　of　our　seamen；　I　determined　not　to　ratify　it。　　The　Senate

thought　I　should　ask　their　advice。　　I　thought　that　would　be　a　mockery

of　them；　when　I　was　predetermined　against　following　it；　should　they

advise　its　ratification。　　The　constitution　had　made　their　advice

necessary　to　confirm　a　treaty；　but　not　to　reject　it。　　This　has　been

blamed　by　some；　but　I　have　never　doubted　its　soundness。　　In　the　cases

of　two　persons；　_antenati_；　under　exactly　similar　circumstances；　the

federal　court　had　determined　that　one　of　them　（Duane）　was　not　a

citizen；　the　House　of　Representatives　nevertheless　determined　that

the　other　（Smith；　of　South　Carolina）　was　a　citizen；　and　admitted　him

to　his　seat　in　their　body。　　Duane　was　a　republican；　and　Smith　a

federalist；　and　these　decisions　were　made　during　the　federal

ascendancy。




　　　　　　　　（*）　The　constitution　controlling　the　common　law　in　this

particular。




　　　　　　　　These　are　examples　of　my　position；　that　each　of　the　three

departments　has　equally　the　right　to　decide　for　itself　what　is　its

duty　under　the　constitution；　without　any　regard　to　what　the　others

may　have　decided　for　themselves　under　a　similar　question。　　But　you

intimate　a　wish　that　my　opinion　should　be　known　on　this　subject。　　No；

dear　Sir；　I　withdraw　from　all　contest　of　opinion；　and　resign

everything　cheerfully　to　the　generation　now　in　place。　　They　are　wiser

than　we　were；　and　their　successors　will　be　wiser　than　they；　from　the

progressive　advance　of　science。　　Tranquillity　is　the　_summum　bonum_

of　age。　　I　wish；　therefore；　to　offend　no　man's　opinion；　nor　to　draw

disquieting　animadversions　on　my　own。　　While　duty　required　it；　I　met

opposition　with　a　firm　and　fearless　step。　　But　loving　mankind　in　my

individual　relations　with　them；　I　pray　to　be　permitted　to　depart　in

their　peace；　and　like　the　superannuated　soldier；　_〃quadragenis

stipendiis　emeritis；〃_　to　hang　my　arms　on　the　post。　　I　have　unwisely；

I　fear；　embarked　in　an　enterprise　of　great　public　concern；　but　not　to

be　accomplished　within　my　term；　without　their　liberal　and　prompt

support。　　A　severe　illness　the