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demand　at　home。　But　whether　the　capital；　which　carries　this

surplus　produce　abroad；　be　a　foreign　or　a　domestic　one　is　of　very

little　importance。　If　the　society　has　not　acquired　sufficient

capital　both　to　cultivate　all　its　lands；　and　to　manufacture　in

the　completest　manner　the　whole　of　its　rude　produce；　there　is

even　a　considerable　advantage　that　rude　produce　should　be

exported　by　a　foreign　capital；　in　order　that　the　whole　stock　of

the　society　may　be　employed　in　more　useful　purposes。　The　wealth

of　ancient　Egypt；　that　of　China　and　Indostan；　sufficiently

demonstrate　that　a　nation　may　attain　a　very　high　degree　of

opulence　though　the　greater　part　of　its　exportation　trade　be

carried　on　by　foreigners。　The　progress　of　our　North　American　and

West　Indian　colonies　would　have　been　much　less　rapid　had　no

capital　but　what　belonged　to　themselves　been　employed　in

exporting　their　surplus　produce。

　　　　　According　to　the　natural　course　of　things；　therefore；　the

greater　part　of　the　capital　of　every　growing　society　is；　first；

directed　to　agriculture；　afterwards　to　manufactures；　and　last　of

all　to　foreign　commerce。　This　order　of　things　is　so　very　natural

that　in　every　society　that　had　any　territory　it　has　always；　I

believe；　been　in　some　degree　observed。　Some　of　their　lands　must

have　been　cultivated　before　any　considerable　towns　could　be

established；　and　some　sort　of　coarse　industry　of　the

manufacturing　kind　must　have　been　carried　on　in　those　towns；

before　they　could　well　think　of　employing　themselves　in　foreign

commerce。

　　　　　But　though　this　natural　order　of　things　must　have　taken

place　in　some　degree　in　every　such　society；　it　has；　in　all　the

modern　states　of　Europe；　been；　in　many　respects；　entirely

inverted。　The　foreign　commerce　of　some　of　their　cities　has

introduced　all　their　finer　manufactures；　or　such　as　were　fit　for

distant　sale；　and　manufactures　and　foreign　commerce　together　have

given　birth　to　the　principal　improvements　of　agriculture。　The

manners　and　customs　which　the　nature　of　their　original　government

introduced；　and　which　remained　after　that　government　was　greatly

altered；　necessarily　forced　them　into　this　unnatural　and

retrograde　order。　　　



　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　CHAPTER　II



Of　the　Discouragement　of　Agriculture　in　the　ancient　State　of

Europe　after　the　Fall　of　the　Roman　Empire　



　　　　　WHEN　the　German　and　Scythian　nations　overran　the　western

provinces　of　the　Roman　empire；　the　confusions　which　followed　so

great　a　revolution　lasted　for　several　centuries。　The　rapine　and

violence　which　the　barbarians　exercised　against　the　ancient

inhabitants　interrupted　the　commerce　between　the　towns　and　the

country。　The　towns　were　deserted；　and　the　country　was　left

uncultivated；　and　the　western　provinces　of　Europe；　which　had

enjoyed　a　considerable　degree　of　opulence　under　the　Roman　empire；

sunk　into　the　lowest　state　of　poverty　and　barbarism。　During　the

continuance　of　those　confusions；　the　chiefs　and　principal　leaders

of　those　nations　acquired　or　usurped　to　themselves　the　greater

part　of　the　lands　of　those　countries。　A　great　part　of　them　was

uncultivated；　but　no　part　of　them；　whether　cultivated　or

uncultivated；　was　left　without　a　proprietor。　All　of　them　were

engrossed；　and　the　greater　part　by　a　few　great　proprietors。

　　　　　This　original　engrossing　of　uncultivated　lands；　though　a

great；　might　have　been　but　a　transitory　evil。　They　might　soon

have　been　divided　again；　and　broke　into　small　parcels　either　by

succession　or　by　alienation。　The　law　of　primogeniture　hindered

them　from　being　divided　by　succession：　the　introduction　of

entails　prevented　their　being　broke　into　small　parcels　by

alienation。

　　　　　When　land；　like　movables；　is　considered　as　the　means　only　of

subsistence　and　enjoyment；　the　natural　law　of　succession　divides

it；　like　them；　among　all　the　children　of　the　family；　of　an　of

whom　the　subsistence　and　enjoyment　may　be　supposed　equally　dear

to　the　father。　This　natural　law　of　succession　accordingly　took

place　among　the　Romans；　who　made　no　more　distinction　between

elder　and　younger；　between　male　and　female；　in　the　inheritance　of

lands　than　we　do　in　the　distribution　of　movables。　But　when　land

was　considered　as　the　means；　not　of　subsistence　merely；　but　of

power　and　protection；　it　was　thought　better　that　it　should

descend　undivided　to　one。　In　those　disorderly　times　every　great

landlord　was　a　sort　of　petty　prince。　His　tenants　were　his

subjects。　He　was　their　judge；　and　in　some　respects　their

legislator　in　peace；　and　their　leader　in　war。　He　made　war

according　to　his　own　discretion；　frequently　against　his

neighbours；　and　sometimes　against　his　sovereign。　The　security　of

a　landed　estate；　therefore；　the　protection　which　its　owner　could

afford　to　those　who　dwelt　on　it；　depended　upon　its　greatness。　To

divide　it　was　to　ruin　it；　and　to　expose　every　part　of　it　to　be

oppressed　and　swallowed　up　by　the　incursions　of　its　neighbours。

The　law　of　primogeniture；　therefore；　came　to　take　place；　not

immediately；　indeed；　but　in　process　of　time；　in　the　succession　of

landed　estates；　for　the　same　reason　that　it　has　generally　taken

place　in　that　of　monarchies；　though　not　always　at　their　first

institution。　That　the　power；　and　consequently　the　security　of　the

monarchy；　may　not　be　weakened　by　division；　it　must　descend　entire

to　one　of　the　children。　To　which　of　them　so　important　a

preference　shall　be　given　must　be　determined　by　some　general

rule；　founded　not　upon　the　doubtful　distinctions　of　personal

merit；　but　upon　some　plain　and　evident　difference　which　can　admit

of　no　dispute。　Among　the　children　of　the　same　family；　there　can

be　no　indisputable　difference　but　that　of　sex；　and　that　of　age。

The　male　sex　is　universally　preferred　to　the　female；　and　when　all

other　things　are　equal；　the　elder　everywhere　takes　place　of　the

younger。　Hence　the　origin　of　the　right　of　primogeniture；　and　of

what　is　called　lineal　succession。

　　　　　Laws　frequently　continue　in　force　long　after　the

circumstances　which　first　gave　occasion　to　them；　and　which　could

alone　render　them　reasonable；　are　no　more。　In　the　present　state

of　Europe；　the　proprietor　of　a　single　acre　of　land　is　as

perfectly　secure　of　his　possession　as　the　proprietor　of　a　hundred

thousand。　The　right　of　primogeniture；　however；　still　continues　to

be　respected；　and　as　of　all　institutions　it　is　the　fittest　to

support　the　pride　of　family　distinctions；　it　is　still　likely　to

endure　for　many　centuries。　In　every　other　respect；　nothing　can　be

more　contrary　to　the　real　interest　of　a　numerous　family　than　a

right　which；　in　order　to　enrich　one；　beggars　all　the　rest　of　the

children。

　　　　　Entails　are　the　natural　consequences　of　the　law　of

primogeniture。　They　were　introduced　to　preserve　a　certain　lineal

succession；　of　which　the　law　of　primogeniture　first　gave　the

idea；　and　to　hinder　any　part　of　the　original　estate　from　being

carried　out　of　the　proposed　line　either　by　gift；　or　devise；　or

alienation；　either　by　the　folly；　or　by　the　misfortune　of　any　of

its　successive　owners。　They　were　altogether　unknown　to　the

Romans。　Neither　their　substitutions　nor　fideicommisses　bear　any

resemblance　to　entails；　though　some　French　lawyers　have　thought

proper　to　dress　the　modern　institution　in　the　language　and　garb

of　those　ancient　ones。

　　　　　When　great　landed　estates　were　a　sort　of　principalities；

entails　might　not　be　unreasonable。　Like　what　are　called　the

fundamental　laws　of　some　monarchies；　they　might　frequently　hinder

the　security　of　thousands　from　being　endangered　by　the　caprice　or

extravagance　of　one　man。　But　in　the　present　state　of　Europe；　when

small　as　well　as　great　estates　derive　their　security　from　the

laws　of　their　country；　nothing　can　be　more　completely　absurd。

They　are　founded　upon　the　most　absurd　of　all　suppositions；　the

supposition　that　every　successive　generation　of　men　have　not　an

equal　right　to　the　earth；　and　to　all　that　it　possesses；　but　that

the　property　of　the　present　generation　should　be　restrained　and

regulated　according　to　the　fancy　of　those　who　died　perhaps　five

hundred　years　ago。　Entails；　however；　are　still　respected　through

the　greater　part　of　Europe；　in　those　countries　particularly　in

which　noble　birth　is　a　necessary　qualification　for　the　enjoyment

either　of　civil　or　military　honours。　Entails　are　thought

necessary　for　maintaining　this　exclusive　privilege　of　the

nobility　to　the　great　offices　and　honours　of　their　country；　and

that　order　having　usurped　one　unjust　advantage　over　the　rest　of

their　fellow　citizens；　lest　their　poverty　should　render　it

ridiculous；　it　is　thought　reasonable　that　they　should　have

another。　The　common　law　of　England；　indeed；　is　said　to　abhor

perpetuities；　and　they　are　accordingly　more　restricted　there　than

in　any　other　European　monarchy；　though　even　England　is　not

altogether　without　them。　In　Scotland　more　than　one…fifth；　perhaps

more　than　one…third；　part　of　the　whole　lands　of　the　country　are

at　present　supposed　to　be　under　strict　entail。

　　　　　Great　tracts　of　uncultivated　land　were；　in　this　manner；　not

only　engrossed　by　particular　families；　but　the　possibility　of

their　being　divided　again　was　as　much　as　possible　precluded　for

ever。　It　seldom　happens；　however；　that　a　great　proprietor　is　a

great　improver。　In　the　disorderly　times　which　gave　birth　to　those

barbarous　institutions；　the　great　proprietor　was　sufficiently

employed　in　defending　his　own　territories；　or　in　extending　his

jurisdiction　and　authority　over　those　of　his　neighbours。　He　had

no　leisure　to　attend　to　the　cultivation　and　improvement　of　land。

When　the　establishment　of　law　and　order　afforded　him　this

leisure；　he　often　wanted　the　inclination；　and　almost　always　the

requisite　abilities。　If　the　expense　of　his　house　and　person

either　equalled　or　exceeded　his　revenue；　as　it　did　very

frequently；　he　had　no　stock　to　employ　in　this　manner。　If　he　was

an　economist；　he　generally　found　it　more　profitable　to　employ　his

annual　savings　in　new　purchases　than　in　the　improvement　of　his

old　estate。　To　improve　land　with　profit；　like　all　other

commercial　projects；　requires　an　exact　attention　to　sm