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commercial　projects；　requires　an　exact　attention　to　small　savings

and　small　gains；　of　which　a　man　born　to　a　great　fortune；　even

though　naturally　frugal；　is　very　seldom　capable。　The　situation　of

such　a　person　naturally　disposes　him　to　attend　rather　to　ornament

which　pleases　his　fancy　than　to　profit　for　which　he　has　so　little

occasion。　The　elegance　of　his　dress；　of　his　equipage；　of　his

house；　and　household　furniture；　are　objects　which　from　his

infancy　he　has　been　accustomed　to　have　some　anxiety　about。　The

turn　of　mind　which　this　habit　naturally　forms　follows　him　when　he

comes　to　think　of　the　improvement　of　land。　He　embellishes　perhaps

four　or　five　hundred　acres　in　the　neighbourhood　of　his　house；　at

ten　times　the　expense　which　the　land　is　worth　after　all　his

improvements；　and　finds　that　if　he　was　to　improve　his　whole

estate　in　the　same　manner；　and　he　has　little　taste　for　any　other；

he　would　be　a　bankrupt　before　he　had　finished　the　tenth　part　of

it。　There　still　remain　in　both　parts　of　the　United　Kingdom　some

great　estates　which　have　continued　without　interruption　in　the

hands　of　the　same　family　since　the　times　of　feudal　anarchy。

Compare　the　present　condition　of　those　estates　with　the

possessions　of　the　small　proprietors　in　their　neighbourhood；　and

you　will　require　no　other　argument　to　convince　you　how

unfavourable　such　extensive　property　is　to　improvement。

　　　　　If　little　improvement　was　to　be　expected　from　such　great

proprietors；　still　less　was　to　be　hoped　for　from　those　who

occupied　the　land　under　them。　In　the　ancient　state　of　Europe；　the

occupiers　of　land　were　all　tenants　at　will。　They　were　all　or

almost　all　slaves；　but　their　slavery　was　of　a　milder　kind　than

that　known　among　the　ancient　Greeks　and　Romans；　or　even　in　our

West　Indian　colonies。　They　were　supposed　to　belong　more　directly

to　the　land　than　to　their　master。　They　could；　therefore；　be　sold

with　it；　but　not　separately。　They　could　marry；　provided　it　was

with　the　consent　of　their　master；　and　he　could　not　afterwards

dissolve　the　marriage　by　selling　the　man　and　wife　to　different

persons。　If　he　maimed　or　murdered　any　of　them；　he　was　liable　to

some　penalty；　though　generally　but　to　a　small　one。　They　were　not；

however；　capable　of　acquiring　property。　Whatever　they　acquired

was　acquired　to　their　master；　and　he　could　take　it　from　them　at

pleasure。　Whatever　cultivation　and　improvement　could　be　carried

on　by　means　of　such　slaves　was　properly　carried　on　by　their

master。　It　was　at　his　expense。　The　seed；　the　cattle；　and　the

instruments　of　husbandry　were　all　his。　It　was　for　his　benefit。

Such　slaves　could　acquire　nothing　but　their　daily　maintenance。　It

was　properly　the　proprietor　himself；　therefore；　that；　in　this

case；　occupied　his　own　lands；　and　cultivated　them　by　his　own

bondmen。　This　species　of　slavery　still　subsists　in　Russia；

Poland；　Hungary；　Bohemia；　Moravia；　and　other　parts　of　Germany。　It

is　only　in　the　western　and　southwestern　provinces　of　Europe　that

it　has　gradually　been　abolished　altogether。

　　　　　But　if　great　improvements　are　seldom　to　be　expected　from

great　proprietors；　they　are　least　of　all　to　be　expected　when　they

employ　slaves　for　their　workmen。　The　experience　of　all　ages　and

nations；　I　believe；　demonstrates　that　the　work　done　by　slaves；

though　it　appears　to　cost　only　their　maintenance；　is　in　the　end

the　dearest　of　any。　A　person　who　can　acquire　no　property；　can

have　no　other　interest　but　to　eat　as　much；　and　to　labour　as

little　as　possible。　Whatever　work　he　does　beyond　what　is

sufficient　to　purchase　his　own　maintenance　can　be　squeezed　out　of

him　by　violence　only；　and　not　by　any　interest　of　his　own。　In

ancient　Italy；　how　much　the　cultivation　of　corn　degenerated；　how

unprofitable　it　became　to　the　master　when　it　fell　under　the

management　of　slaves；　is　remarked　by　both　Pliny　and　Columella。　In

the　time　of　Aristotle　it　had　not　been　much　better　in　ancient

Greece。　Speaking　of　the　ideal　republic　described　in　the　laws　of

Plato；　to　maintain　five　thousand　idle　men　（the　number　of　warriors

supposed　necessary　for　its　defence）　together　with　their　women　and

servants；　would　require；　he　says；　a　territory　of　boundless　extent

and　fertility；　like　the　plains　of　Babylon。

　　　　　The　pride　of　man　makes　him　love　to　domineer；　and　nothing

mortifies　him　so　much　as　to　be　obliged　to　condescend　to　persuade

his　inferiors。　Wherever　the　law　allows　it；　and　the　nature　of　the

work　can　afford　it；　therefore；　he　will　generally　prefer　the

service　of　slaves　to　that　of　freemen。　The　planting　of　sugar　and

tobacco　can　afford　the　expense　of　slave…cultivation。　The　raising

of　corn；　it　seems；　in　the　present　times；　cannot。　In　the　English

colonies；　of　which　the　principal　produce　is　corn；　the　far　greater

part　of　the　work　is　done　by　freemen。　The　late　resolution　of　the

Quakers　in　Pennsylvania　to　set　at　liberty　all　their　negro　slaves

may　satisfy　us　that　their　number　cannot　be　very　great。　Had　they

made　any　considerable　part　of　their　property；　such　a　resolution

could　never　have　been　agreed　to。　In　our　sugar　colonies；　on　the

contrary；　the　whole　work　is　done　by　slaves；　and　in　our　tobacco

colonies　a　very　great　part　of　it。　The　profits　of　a

sugar…plantation　in　any　of　our　West　Indian　colonies　are　generally

much　greater　than　those　of　any　other　cultivation　that　is　known

either　in　Europe　or　America；　and　the　profits　of　a　tobacco

plantation；　though　inferior　to　those　of　sugar；　are　superior　to

those　of　corn；　as　has　already　been　observed。　Both　can　afford　the

expense　of　slave…cultivation；　but　sugar　can　afford　it　still

better　than　tobacco。　The　number　of　negroes　accordingly　is　much

greater；　in　proportion　to　that　of　whites；　in　our　sugar　than　in

our　tobacco　colonies。

　　　　　To　the　slave　cultivators　of　ancient　times　gradually

succeeded　a　species　of　farmers　known　at　present　in　France　by　the

name　of　metayers。　They　are　called　in　Latin；　Coloni　partiarii。

They　have　been　so　long　in　disuse　in　England　that　at　present　I

know　no　English　name　for　them。　The　proprietor　furnished　them　with

the　seed；　cattle；　and　instruments　of　husbandry；　the　whole　stock；

in　short；　necessary　for　cultivating　the　farm。　The　produce　was

divided　equally　between　the　proprietor　and　the　farmer；　after

setting　aside　what　was　judged　necessary　for　keeping　up　the　stock；

which　was　restored　to　the　proprietor　when　the　farmer　either

quitted；　or　was　turned　out　of　the　farm。

　　　　　Land　occupied　by　such　tenants　is　properly　cultivated　at　the

expense　of　the　proprietor　as　much　as　that　occupied　by　slaves。

There　is；　however；　one　very　essential　difference　between　them。

Such　tenants；　being　freemen；　are　capable　of　acquiring　property；

and　having　a　certain　proportion　of　the　produce　of　the　land；　they

have　a　plain　interest　that　the　whole　produce　should　be　as　great

as　possible；　in　order　that　their　own　proportion　may　be　so。　A

slave；　on　the　contrary；　who　can　acquire　nothing　but　his

maintenance；　consults　his　own　ease　by　making　the　land　produce　as

little　as　possible　over　and　above　that　maintenance。　It　is

probable　that　it　was　partly　upon　account　of　this　advantage；　and

partly　upon　account　of　the　encroachments　which　the　sovereign；

always　jealous　of　the　great　lords；　gradually　encouraged　their

villains　to　make　upon　their　authority；　and　which　seem　at　last　to

have　been　such　as　rendered　this　species　of　servitude　altogether

inconvenient；　that　tenure　in　villanage　gradually　wore　out　through

the　greater　part　of　Europe。　The　time　and　manner；　however；　in

which　so　important　a　revolution　was　brought　about　is　one　of　the

most　obscure　points　in　modern　history。　The　Church　of　Rome　claims

great　merit　in　it；　and　it　is　certain　that　so　early　as　the　twelfth

century；　Alexander　III　published　a　bull　for　the　general

emancipation　of　slaves。　It　seems；　however；　to　have　been　rather　a

pious　exhortation　than　a　law　to　which　exact　obedience　was

required　from　the　faithful。　Slavery　continued　to　take　place

almost　universally　for　several　centuries　afterwards；　till　it　was

gradually　abolished　by　the　joint　operation　of　the　two　interests

above　mentioned；　that　of　the　proprietor　on　the　one　hand；　and　that

of　the　sovereign　on　the　other。　A　villain　enfranchised；　and　at　the

same　time　allowed　to　continue　in　possession　of　the　land；　having

no　stock　of　his　own；　could　cultivate　it　only　by　means　of　what　the

landlord　advanced　to　him；　and　must；　therefore；　have　been　what　the

French　called　a　metayer。

　　　　　It　could　never；　however；　be　the　interest　even　of　this　last

species　of　cultivators　to　lay　out；　in　the　further　improvement　of

the　land；　any　part　of　the　little　stock　which　they　might　save　from

their　own　share　of　the　produce；　because　the　lord；　who　laid　out

nothing；　was　to　get　one　half　of　whatever　it　produced。　The　tithe；

which　is　but　a　tenth　of　the　produce；　is　found　to　be　a　very　great

hindrance　to　improvement。　A　tax；　therefore；　which　amounted　to　one

half　must　have　been　an　effectual　bar　to　it。　It　might　be　the

interest　of　a　metayer　to　make　the　land　produce　as　much　as　could

be　brought　out　of　it　by　means　of　the　stock　furnished　by　the

proprietor；　but　it　could　never　be　his　interest　to　mix　any　part　of

his　own　with　it。　In　France；　where　five　parts　out　of　six　of　the

whole　kingdom　are　said　to　be　still　occupied　by　this　species　of

cultivators；　the　proprietors　complain　that　their　metayers　take

every　opportunity　of　employing　the　master's　cattle　rather　in

carriage　than　in　cultivation；　because　in　the　one　case　they　get

the　whole　profits　to　themselves；　in　the　other　they　share　them

with　their　landlord。　This　species　of　tenants　still　subsists　in

some　parts　of　Scotland。　They　are　called　steel…bow　tenants。　Those

ancient　English　tenants；　who　are　said　by　Chief　Baron　Gilbert　and

Doctor　Blackstone　to　have　been　rather　bailiffs　of　the　landlord

than　farmers　properly　so　called；　were　probably　of　the　same　kind。

　　　　　To　this　species　of　tenancy　succeeded；　though　by　very　slow

degrees；　farmers　properly　so　called；　who　cultivated　the　land　with

their　own　stock；　paying　a　rent　certain　to　the　landlord。　When　such

farmers　have　a　lease　for　a　term　of　years；　they　may　sometimes　find

it　for　their　interest　to　lay　out　part　of　their　capital　in　the

f