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this　kind；　without　some　authority　to　compel　their　inhabitants　to

act　according　to　some　certain　plan　or　system；　no　voluntary　league

of　mutual　defence　could　either　have　afforded　them　any　permanent

security；　or　have　enabled　them　to　give　the　king　any　considerable

support。　By　granting　them　the　farm　of　their　town　in　fee；　he　took

away　from　those　whom　he　wished　to　have　for　his　friends；　and；　if

one　may　say　so；　for　his　allies；　all　ground　of　jealousy　and

suspicion　that　he　was　ever　afterwards　to　oppress　them；　either　by

raising　the　farm　rent　of　their　town　or　by　granting　it　to　some

other　farmer。

　　　　　The　princes　who　lived　upon　the　worst　terms　with　their　barons

seem　accordingly　to　have　been　the　most　liberal　in　grants　of　this

kind　to　their　burghs。　King　John　of　England；　for　example；　appears

to　have　been　a　most　munificent　benefactor　to　his　towns。　Philip

the　First　of　France　lost　all　authority　over　his　barons。　Towards

the　end　of　his　reign；　his　son　Lewis；　known　afterwards　by　the　name

of　Lewis　the　Fat；　consulted；　according　to　Father　Daniel；　with　the

bishops　of　the　royal　demesnes　concerning　the　most　proper　means　of

restraining　the　violence　of　the　great　lords。　Their　advice

consisted　of　two　different　proposals。　One　was　to　erect　a　new

order　of　jurisdiction；　by　establishing　magistrates　and　a　town

council　in　every　considerable　town　of　his　demesnes。　The　other　was

to　form　a　new　militia；　by　making　the　inhabitants　of　those　towns；

under　the　command　of　their　own　magistrates；　march　out　upon　proper

occasions　to　the　assistance　of　the　king。　It　is　from　this　period；

according　to　the　French　antiquarians；　that　we　are　to　date　the

institution　of　the　magistrates　and　councils　of　cities　in　France。

It　was　during　the　unprosperous　reigns　of　the　princes　of　the　house

of　Suabia　that　the　greater　part　of　the　free　towns　of　Germany

received　the　first　grants　of　their　privileges；　and　that　the

famous　Hanseatic　league　first　became　formidable。

　　　　　The　militia　of　the　cities　seems；　in　those　times；　not　to　have

been　inferior　to　that　of　the　country；　and　as　they　could　be　more

readily　assembled　upon　any　sudden　occasion；　they　frequently　had

the　advantage　in　their　disputes　with　the　neighbouring　lords。　In

countries；　such　as　Italy　and　Switzerland；　in　which；　on　account

either　of　their　distance　from　the　principal　seat　of　government；

of　the　natural　strength　of　the　country　itself；　or　of　some　other

reason；　the　sovereign　came　to　lose　the　whole　of　his　authority；

the　cities　generally　became　independent　republics；　and　conquered

all　the　nobility　in　their　neighbourhood；　obliging　them　to　pull

down　their　castles　in　the　country　and　to　live；　like　other

peaceable　inhabitants；　in　the　city。　This　is　the　short　history　of

the　republic　of　Berne　as　well　as　of　several　other　cities　in

Switzerland。　If　you　except　Venice；　for　of　that　city　the　history

is　somewhat　different；　it　is　the　history　of　all　the　considerable

Italian　republics；　of　which　so　great　a　number　arose　and　perished

between　the　end　of　the　twelfth　and　the　beginning　of　the　sixteenth

century。

　　　　　In　countries　such　as　France　or　England；　where　the　authority

of　the　sovereign；　though　frequently　very　low；　never　was　destroyed

altogether；　the　cities　had　no　opportunity　of　becoming　entirely

independent。　They　became；　however；　so　considerable　that　the

sovereign　could　impose　no　tax　upon　them；　besides　the　stated

farm…rent　of　the　town；　without　their　own　consent。　They　were；

therefore；　called　upon　to　send　deputies　to　the　general　assembly

of　the　states　of　the　kingdom；　where　they　might　join　with　the

clergy　and　the　barons　in　granting；　upon　urgent　occasions；　some

extraordinary　aid　to　the　king。　Being　generally；　too；　more

favourable　to　his　power；　their　deputies　seem；　sometimes；　to　have

been　employed　by　him　as　a　counterbalance　in　those　assemblies　to

the　authority　of　the　great　lords。　Hence　the　origin　of　the

representation　of　burghs　in　the　states…general　of　all　the　great

monarchies　in　Europe。

　　　　　Order　and　good　government；　and　along　with　them　the　liberty

and　security　of　individuals；　were；　in　this　manner；　established　in

cities　at　a　time　when　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country　were

exposed　to　every　sort　of　violence。　But　men　in　this　defenceless

state　naturally　content　themselves　with　their　necessary

subsistence；　because　to　acquire　more　might　only　tempt　the

injustice　of　their　oppressors。　On　the　contrary；　when　they　are

secure　of　enjoying　the　fruits　of　their　industry；　they　naturally

exert　it　to　better　their　condition；　and　to　acquire　not　only　the

necessaries；　but　the　conveniences　and　elegancies　of　life。　That

industry；　therefore；　which　aims　at　something　more　than　necessary

subsistence；　was　established　in　cities　long　before　it　was

commonly　practised　by　the　occupiers　of　land　in　the　country。　If　in

the　hands　of　a　poor　cultivator；　oppressed　with　the　servitude　of

villanage；　some　little　stock　should　accumulate；　he　would

naturally　conceal　it　with　great　care　from　his　master；　to　whom　it

would　otherwise　have　belonged；　and　take　the　first　opportunity　of

running　away　to　a　town。　The　law　was　at　that　time　so　indulgent　to

the　inhabitants　of　towns；　and　so　desirous　of　diminishing　the

authority　of　the　lords　over　those　of　the　country；　that　if　he

could　conceal　himself　there　from　the　pursuit　of　his　lord　for　a

year；　he　was　free　for　ever。　Whatever　stock；　therefore；

accumulated　in　the　hands　of　the　industrious　part　of　the

inhabitants　of　the　country　naturally　took　refuge　in　cities　as　the

only　sanctuaries　in　which　it　could　be　secure　to　the　person　that

acquired　it。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　a　city；　it　is　true；　must　always

ultimately　derive　their　subsistence；　and　the　whole　materials　and

means　of　their　industry；　from　the　country。　But　those　of　a　city；

situated　near　either　the　sea　coast　or　the　banks　of　a　navigable

river；　are　not　necessarily　confined　to　derive　them　from　the

country　in　their　neighbourhood。　They　have　a　much　wider　range；　and

may　draw　them　from　the　most　remote　corners　of　the　world；　either

in　exchange　for　the　manufactured　produce　of　their　own　industry；

or　by　performing　the　office　of　carriers　between　distant　countries

and　exchanging　the　produce　of　one　for　that　of　another。　A　city

might　in　this　manner　grow　up　to　great　wealth　and　splendour；　while

not　only　the　country　in　its　neighbourhood；　but　all　those　to　which

it　traded；　were　in　poverty　and　wretchedness。　Each　of　those

countries；　perhaps；　taken　singly；　could　afford　it　but　a　small

part　either　of　its　subsistence　or　of　its　employment；　but　all　of

them　taken　together　could　afford　it　both　a　great　subsistence　and

a　great　employment。　There　were；　however；　within　the　narrow　circle

of　the　commerce　of　those　times；　some　countries　that　were　opulent

and　industrious。　Such　was　the　Greek　empire　as　long　as　it

subsisted；　and　that　of　the　Saracens　during　the　reigns　of　the

Abassides。　Such　too　was　Egypt　till　it　was　conquered　by　the　Turks；

some　part　of　the　coast　of　Barbary；　and　all　those　provinces　of

Spain　which　were　under　the　government　of　the　Moors。

　　　　　The　cities　of　Italy　seem　to　have　been　the　first　in　Europe

which　were　raised　by　commerce　to　any　considerable　degree　of

opulence。　Italy　lay　in　the　centre　of　what　was　at　that　time　the

improved　and　civilised　part　of　the　world。　The　Crusades　too；

though　by　the　great　waste　of　stock　and　destruction　of　inhabitants

which　they　occasioned　they　must　necessarily　have　retarded　the

progress　of　the　greater　part　of　Europe；　were　extremely　favourable

to　that　of　some　Italian　cities。　The　great　armies　which　marched

from　all　parts　to　the　conquest　of　the　Holy　Land　gave

extraordinary　encouragement　to　the　shipping　of　Venice；　Genoa；　and

Pisa；　sometimes　in　transporting　them　thither；　and　always　in

supplying　them　with　provisions。　They　were　the　commissaries；　if

one　may　say　so；　of　those　armies；　and　the　most　destructive　frenzy

that　ever　befell　the　European　nations　was　a　source　of　opulence　to

those　republics。

　　　　　The　inhabitants　of　trading　cities；　by　importing　the　improved

manufactures　and　expensive　luxuries　of　richer　countries；　afforded

some　food　to　the　vanity　of　the　great　proprietors；　who　eagerly

purchased　them　with　great　quantities　of　the　rude　produce　of　their

own　lands。　The　commerce　of　a　great　part　of　Europe　in　those　times；

accordingly；　consisted　chiefly　in　the　exchange　of　their　own　rude

for　the；　manufactured　produce　of　more　civilised　nations。　Thus　the

wool　of　England　used　to　be　exchanged　for　the　wines　of　France　and

the　fine　cloths　of　Flanders；　in　the　same　manner　as　the　corn　in

Poland　is　at　this　day　exchanged　for　the　wines　and　brandies　of

France　and　for　the　silks　and　velvets　of　France　and　Italy。

　　　　　A　taste　for　the　finer　and　more　improved　manufactures　was　in

this　manner　introduced　by　foreign　commerce　into　countries　where

no　such　works　were　carried　on。　But　when　this　taste　became　so

general　as　to　occasion　a　considerable　demand；　the　merchants；　in

order　to　save　the　expense　of　carriage；　naturally　endeavoured　to

establish　some　manufactures　of　the　same　kind　in　their　own

country。　Hence　the　origin　of　the　first　manufactures　for　distant

sale　that　seem　to　have　been　established　in　the　western　provinces

of　Europe　after　the　fall　of　the　Roman　empire。　No　large　country；

it　must　be　observed；　ever　did　or　could　subsist　without　some　sort

of　manufactures　being　carried　on　in　it；　and　when　it　is　said　of

any　such　country　that　it　has　no　manufactures；　it　must　always　be

understood　of　the　finer　and　more　improved　or　of　such　as　are　fit

for　distant　sale。　In　every　large　country　both　the　clothing　and

household　furniture　of　the　far　greater　part　of　the　people　are　the

produce　of　their　own　industry。　This　is　even　more　universally　the

case　in　those　poor　countries　which　are　commonly　said　to　have　no

manufactures　than　in　those　rich　ones　that　are　said　to　abound　in

them。　In　the　latter；　you　will　generally　find；　both　in　the　clothes

and　household　furniture　of　the　lowest　rank　of　people；　a　much

greater　proportion　of　foreign　productions　than　in　the　former。

　　　　　Those　manufactures　which　are　fit　for　distant　sale　seem　to

have　been　introduced　into　different　countries　in　two　different

ways。

　　　　　Sometimes　they　have　been　introdu