lecture iv-第6部分

快捷操作: 按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页 按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页 按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部! 如果本书没有阅读完，想下次继续接着阅读，可使用上方 "收藏到我的浏览器" 功能 和 "加入书签" 功能！


according　to　which　〃the　Tzar；　in　order　to　preserve　his
independence；　ought　to　have　no　counsellors　more　intelligent　than
himself。〃　This　theory　was　accepted　with　avidity　by　such　tyrants
as　Ivan　the　Cruel；　who　refers　to　it　more　than　once　in　his
correspondence　with　the　Polish　king；　Stephen　Bathory。　The　fact
that　this　prince　was　surrounded　by　a　sort　of　parliament；　the
Polish　Seim；　was　declared　by　the　Russian　Tzar　to　be　a　manifest
proof　of　his　political　inferiority。　〃Autocracy　（samoderjavsto）；〃
according　to　Ivan's　idea；　〃was　impossible　with　an　elective
council；　the　autocrat　must　do　everything　by　himself；　he　has　to
give　orders　to　his　subjects；　and　these；　last　must　obey　like
serfs；　and　that　according　to　the　command　of　God。〃
　　　　These　ideas；　which　had　been　expressed　centuries　before　by
monkish　writers；　who　had　found　them　set　forth　in　Byzantine
treatises；　were　far　from　being　those　of　the　generality　of　Russian
statesmen　and　thinkers。　When　Prince　Kourbsky　advised　the　tyrant
Ivan　to　seek　good　and　useful　counsel；　not　only　among　the　members
of　his　douma；　a　sort　of　curia　regis　　but　also　among　the
representatives　of　the　people　　vsenarodnich　chelovok　　he　gave
utterance　to　an　old　political　desire。　Another　contemporary
writer；　the　unknown　author　of　The　Sermon　of　the　Saints　of　Walaam；
gives　way　to　the　same　feeling　in　the　following　terms：　〃The　clergy
ought　to　advise　the　Tzar　to　keep　a　constant　general　council；
composed　of　persons　coming　from　all　the　cities　and　districts　of
his　dominions。　Such　a　council　must　be　kept；　and　their　advice
taken　day　by　day　on　every　question　which　may　occur。〃　Two
different　institutions　were　meant　by　those　who　advised　the　Czar
to　rule　by　the　advice　of　his　councillors。　One　was　as　old　as　the
monarchy　itself；　and　belonged　to　those　old　customs；　which；
according　to　contemporary　writers；　had　been　scrupulously
maintained　by　former　potentates。　I　refer　to　the　council　of　the
Boyars　　the　Douma。　The　other　institution。　the　history　of　which
will　form　the　principal　subject　of　our　next　lecture；　was；　on　the
contrary；　quite　recent　　the　States…General　of　Moscovy；　the
Zemskii　Sobor。
　　　　I　will　conclude　what　I　have　to　say　on　the　political
organisation　of　Russia　during　that　intermediate　period　which
lasted　from　the　fall　of　the　ancient　folkmotes　to　the　convocation
of　the　States…General　by　a　description　of　the　first…named
council；　the　Douma。（4*）　The　study　of　the　internal　constitution　of
the　Douma　is　indispensable　for　the　comprehension　of　the　Part
which　the　higher　nobility　were　called　upon　to　play　in　the
management　of　the　Moscovite　State。　It　will　show　that　the　power　of
the　Moscovite　princes；　absolute　as　it　was；　was　yet　to　a　certain
extent　limited　by　the　power　of　the　nobility。　Up　to　the　middle　of
the　sixteenth　century　the　Boyars　were　the　only　persons　admitted
to　the　exercise　of　executive；　military；　and　judicial　authority。
Under　the　name　of　voevods　we　find　them　at　the　head　of　provinces；
commanding　their　military　forces　and　managing　their
administrative　interests。　As　members　of　the　Douma；　they　had　to
advise　the　Tzar　on　all　kinds　of　political；　executive；　military；
and　financial　questions。　No　law　was　promulgated　until　after
previous　deliberation　on　it　by　the　Douma。　The　same　Douma
furnished　the　chief　rulers　of　the　State　during　the　minority　of
the　Tzar；　and　it　was　in　this　way　that　the　power　of　the　Boyars
made　itself　felt　among　the　lower　classes　of　the　population；　who
soon　came　to　look　upon　them　as　the　chief　cause　of　their　misery。
　　　　The　composition　of　the　Moscovite　council　was　at　the　beginning
very　like　that　which　we　find　in　France　under　the　early　Capetian
kings。　The　curia　regis　was　chiefly　formed　from　among　the　high
court　officials；　such　as　the　majordome；　the　marshal；　the
constable；　the　chancellor　or　cancellarius；　the　camerer　or
camerarius；　etc。　The　same　may　be　said　of　the　Moscovite　Douma　of
the　fourteenth　century；　as　well　as　of　the　privy　council　of　each
and　every　of　the　principalities　into　which　medieval　Russia　was
divided　anterior　to　the　centralising　growth　of　the　Moscovite
power。　The　business　transacted　at　the　court　of　a　Russian　prince
being　distributed　among　different　departments；　the　heads　of　these
departments　were　summoned　to　sit　in　the　council　and　received　the
name　of　boyars。　Money　being　scarce；　the　boyars　were　paid　for
their　services　by　the　donation　of　crown　lands；　and　this　mode　of
payment　being　known　under　the　name　of　〃pont；〃　the　surname　of　the
boyars　was　〃poutevii　boyari。〃　Most　of　the　boyars　summoned　to　sit
in　the　Douma　were　exempted　from　military　service；　and　especially
from　the　duty　of　opposing　the　enemy　at　the　head　of　their　own
retainers；　not　so　much　in　the　open　country　as　in　their　own
castles。　Hence　the　origin　of　another　surname　〃wedennii　boiari〃
which　distinguished　the　most　powerful　members　of　the　Russian
medieval　nobility。　If　we　inquire　into　the　origin　of　those
admitted　to　the　princely　council；　we　shall　see　that　they　belonged
to　the　same　class　as　that　which　furnished　officers　to　the　army
and　the　chiefs　of　the　central　and　provincial　administration。　This
class　is　precisely　that　known　to　the　Anglo…Saxons　as　Thanes；　and
to　the　Merovingian　kings　under　the　title　of　Antrustions。　The
peculiarity　of　medieval　Russia　consisted　in　this；　that；　being
divided　into　a　great　number　of　principalities；　it　left　to　the
knightly　class　the　liberty　of　freely　choosing　the　prince　whom
they　would　like　to　follow。　The　Russian　knightly　class；
corresponding　to　the　〃ministeriels〃　of　feudal　Germany；　the
so…called　〃slougili　liudi〃　or　〃men　of　service；〃　were　authorised
by　custom　to　remain　in　the　service　of　any　prince　as　long　as　they
pleased；　and　to　change　from　one　prince　to　another　according　to
their　own　pleasure。　Before　attaching　himself　to　any　prince　the
〃man　of　service〃　signed　a　sort　of　contract　with　the　political
head　of　the　country　in　which　he　intended　to　settle。　On　taking
service；　a　charter　was　delivered　to　the　knight　in　which　his
duties　and　rights　were　precisely　stated；　and　the　prince　had　no
right　to　infringe　these　conditions。　In　case　of　bad　treatment；　the
knight　found　no　difficulty　in　leaving　the　prince　whom　he　was
serving　and　in　entering　into　similar　relations　with　some　other　of
the　numerous　petty　potentates；　who　ruled　over　medieval　Russia。
This　right　of　freely　passing　from　the　service　of　one　prince　to
that　of　another　was　clearly　recognised　by　the　following　sentence
in　a　treaty　signed　by　the　prince　of　Tver　with　the　Grand　Duke　of
Lithuania；　Kasimir；　as　late　as　the　middle　of　the　fifteenth
century；　1449；　〃Our　bovars　and　men　of　service　may　freely　withdraw
from　one　of　us　to　the　other。〃　This　document　is　probably　the　last
recognition　of　the　liberty　of　removal　once　enjoyed　by　the
knightly　class。
　　　　The　increasing　power　of　the　Grand　Duke　of　Moscovy　could　not
tolerate　this　survival　of　federal　autonomy。　This　prince　did　not
object　to　the　liberty　of　removal　as　long　as　it　served　his　own
purposes　by　increasing　the　number　of　persons　seeking　service　in
the　Moscovite　army　and　Moscovite　civil　service；　but　as　soon　as
the　tyranny　of　some　of　the　Grand　Dukes　caused　their　own　knights
to　withdraw　to　Poland　and　Lithuania；　severe　measures　were　taken
to　put　a　stop　to　this　movement　of　emigration。　The　Grand　Duke
began　to　confiscate　the　grants　of　land　（〃po　mestie〃）　of　the
departing　knights；　and　every　time　he　could　lay　hands　on　one　of
these　seceders　he　was　sure　to　throw　him　into　prison；　very　often
together　with　his　wife　and　children。　The　clergy；　always　on　the
side　of　the　secular　power；　more　than　once　likened　the　behaviour
of　a　seceding　knight　to　the　conduct　of　Judas；　and　declared　it　to
be　not　only　treason　against　the　State　but　also　a　sin　in　the　eyes
of　God。
　　　　Keeping　in　mind　the　facts　just　mentioned；　we　shall　have　no
difficulty　in　explaining　the　Concourse　of　knights　and　men　of　the
sword　in　the　grand　duchy　of　Moscovy。　The　territorial　extension　of
the　duchy　had　necessitated　the　abolition　of　a　great　number　of
small　principalities；　and　persons　formerly　belonging　to　the
ruling　dynasties　and　united　by　ties　of　blood　to　the　Tzar；　were
anxious　to　enter　his　service。　In　this　manner　the　knightly　class
began　to　number　in　its　ranks　a　whole　group　of　princely　families
who　were　the　descendants　of　those　potentates　whose　dominions　had
been　conquered　and　annexed　by　Moscow。　Before　long　the　number　of
persons　desirous　of　taking　service　under　the　Grand　Duke　totally
excluded　the　possibility　of　personal　and　separate　conventions；
such　as　those　which　settled　the　mutual　rights　and　duties　of
prince　and　knight　in　the　other　principalities　of　Russia。　These
personal　agreements　were　superseded　by　a　general　enactment；　which
declared　that　the　man　of　service　occupied　a　higher　or　lower　rank
in　the　political　hierarchy　according；　first；　to　the　dignity　of
the　family　to　which　he　belonged；　and；　secondly；　to　the　number　of
years　his　family　had　been　engaged　in　the　Moscovite　service。
　　　　It　was　generally　acknowledged　that　a　princely　family　　that
is；　a　family　that　had　once　belonged　to　the　number　of　ruling
dynasties；　ought　to　have　precedence　over　all　others　among
untitled　nobles。　Whoever　could　show　among　his　ancestors　persons
in　a　high　official　post　had　the　right　to　refuse　any　inferior
situation；　especially　in　those　cases　in　which　a　person　of　a
comparatively　new　family　was　to　be　set　over　him　as　his　superior。
This　order　of　precedence　was　more　than　once　set　aside　in
consequence　of　the　low　condition　to　which　this　or　that　wealthy
family　had　been　reduced　by　the　loss　of　its　estates。　A　Russian
noble　in　a　miserable　state　of　poverty　was　as　little　entitled　to
occupy　a　high　official　position；　as　was　a　penniless　English　duke；
or　earl；　to　take　his　seat　in　the　House　of　Lords　in　the　fifteenth
century；　in　the　reign　of　Edward　IV。
　　　　The　rules　of　precedence；　constituting　what　our　ancestors　of
the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　centuries　called　〃mestnichestro；〃
were　scrupulously　observed　both　in　the　army　and　in　the　civil
service。　They　also　found　expression　in　the　constitution　of　the
Council　or　Douma。　The　titled　nobility；　the　princely　families；　as
a　rule；　occupied　the　highest　rank　in　the　hierarchy　of　the
councillors；　the　rank　of　〃doumn　iboyars；〃　or　boyars　of　the
Council。
　　　　A　certain　number　of　the　old　Moscovite　nobility