the idea of justice in political economy-第5部分

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it　is　not　the　important　point　whether　Tom；　the　day　laborer；　has
more　than　Dick　or　Harry；　whether　the　grocer；　Jones；　earns　more
than　Brown；　whether　the　banker；　Bleichroder；　has　better　luck　in
his　speculations　than　the　banker；　Hanseman；　about　this　general
judgments　will　only　occasionally　be　formed。　The　average　wages　of
the　day　laborer；　the　average　condition　of　domestic　workers；　the
average　profits　of　the　class　of　promoters；　the　average　profits　of
grocers；　of　landed　proprietors；　of　farmers　on　the　other　hand　are
considered　by　public　opinion　and　judged　to　be　justified　or　not。
And　these　earnings　are　surely　not　dependent　on　fortune　or　chance；
they　are　the　result　of　the　average　qualities　of　the　respective
classes　in　connection　with　their　relations　to　the　other　classes
of　society；　they　are　in　the　main　the　result　of　human
institutions。
　　　　The　prevailing　rights　of　property；　inheritance　and　contract
form　the　centre　of　the　institutions　which　govern　the　distribution
of　incomes。　Their　forms　for　the　time　being　determine　a　democratic
or　aristocratic　distribution　of　wealth。　Who；　for　instance；　has
made　the　division　of　landed　property；　which　generally　determines
the　distribution　of　both　wealth　and　income？　Is　it　nature；　luck　or
chance；　or　demand　and　supply？　No；　in　the　first　place　the　social
and　agrarian　institutions　of　the　past　and　present。　Wherever　small
peasant　proprietorship　prevails　to…day；　it　is　derived　from　the
mediaeval　village　community　system　and　the　law　of　peasant
succession。　Wherever　we　meet　with　a　system　of　large　estates　we
see　a　result　of　the　baronial　and　feudal　system；　of　the　later
manorial　regime　and　of　the　system　of　estates；　at　present　the
institutions　of　mortgages　and　leases　play　a　part；　the　legislation
touching　the　commutation　of　tenures　and　system　of　cultivation
were　of　the　same　importance　to　Germany　as　the　colonial　system　of
other　governments　to　their　colonies。　In　the　distribution　of
personal　property　individual　qualities　are　more　prevalent　than　in
that　of　real　estate。　But　nevertheless　the　institutions　of　ancient
and　modern　times　seem　to　us　the　most　important。　The　forms　of
undertakings　and　the　legal　status　of　the　laboring　classes　are　the
essential　points　：　wherever　slavery　prevailed　it　governed　at　all
times　the　whole　economic　life；　the　whole　social　classification
and　the　distribution　of　incomes；　guilds　were；　at　the　time　of
their　consistent　　maintenance；　as　much　an　institution　of
distribution　of　incomes　as　an　organization　of　labor；　and　the　same
is　true　of　the　domestic　system　of　industry　of　the　seventeenth　and
eighteenth　century　with　its　governmental　regulation；　the　ruling
considerations　were　the　needs　of　commerce　and　technical　practice
on　the　one　hand；　the　situation　of　the　laborers　in　a　domestic
system　of　industries　on　the　other。　And　are　not　to…day　the
institutions　of　unrestricted　trade　and　interest　on　loans；　of　the
exchanges　and　the　system　of　public　debts；　the　forms　of
undertakings；　the　system　of　joint　stock　companies；　of
co…operative　associations；　the　unions　and　corporations　of
employers　and　laborers；　all　labor　law；　the　institutions　of
friendly　and　similar　societies　the　material　foundation　and　cause
of　our　present　distribution　of　incomes？　The　individual　causes　and
the　chance　of　luck　effect　within　the　bounds　of　these　institutions
the　little　aberrations　of　personal　destiny；　the　position　of
social　classes　in　general　is　determined　by　the　institutions。
　　　　What　are　economic　institutions　but　a　product　of　human
feelings　and　thought；　of　human　actions；　human　customs　and　human
laws？　And　just　this　causes　us　to　apply　the　standard　of　justice　to
their　results；　just　this　makes　us　inquire　whether　they　and　their
effects　are　just　or　unjust。　We　do　not　require　the　distribution　of
incomes　or　wealth　to　be　just　absolutely；　we　do　not　require　it　of
technical　economic　acts　which　do　not　concern　others；　but　we　do
require　the　numerous　economic　acts　which　on　the　basis　of　barter
and　division　of　labor　concern　others　and　entire　communities　to　be
just。
　　　　Where　such　acts　come　into　consideration　our　observations
discern　moral　communities；　their　common　aims　and　the　human
qualities；　which　are　connected　with　these　aims。
　　　　The　most　primitive　barter　is　impossible；　unless。　between　the
parties　practising　it　regularly；　a　certain　moral　understanding
exists。　There　must　have　been　an　express　or　silent　mutual
agreement　to　preserve　peace。　The　barterers　must　have　common
conceptions　of　value；　must　recognize　a　common　law。　Every　seller
forms　with　the　purchaser；　who　stands　before　him　at　the　moment　of
the　transaction；　a　moral　union　of　confidence。
　　　　In　epochs　of　primitive　culture；　in　the　social　communities　of
families；　of　kinship；　of　tribes；　of　leagues；　there　exists　an
uncommonly　strong　feeling　of　solidarity　which　therefore　leads　to
very　far…reaching　demands　of　justice　within　these　circles；　as
well　as　to　a　complete　obtuseness　of　the　same　feeling　beyond　them。
With　a　higher　degree　of　culture　these　small　communities　lose；　the
individual　and　the　greater　communities　gain　in　importance。　Now
the　individual　and　now　the　community　appears　more　in　the
foreground；　and　accordingly　the　consciousness　of　the　community　of
interests　will　change　in　intensity。　In　the　periods　in　which　the
individual's　or　the　family's　technical　economic　life　still　forms；
without　more　extensive　intercourse；　without　more　elaborate
division　of　labor；　the　centre　of　gravity　in　economics；　the
feeling　of　community　in　economic　matters　will　recede。　The　further
the　division　of　labor　progresses；　the　more　inextricably　will　the
threads　of　intercourse　involve　the　individual　in　an　insoluble
social　community；　the　more　the　whole　production　will　assume　the
character　of　a　general；　not　an　individual　concern。　Then　the
common　functions　of　the　local　and　the　national　community　will
thrive；　individuals　will　be　more　and　more　dislodged　by　social
leaders。　Every　larger　undertaking；　whenever　it　unites
continuously　a　certain　number　of　men　for　a　common　economic
purpose；　reveals　itself　as　a　moral　community。　It　governs　the
external　and　internal　life　of　all　participants；　determines　their
residence；　school；　division　of　time；　family　life；　to　a　certain
degree　their　mental　horizon；　education　and　pleasure。　The
relations　of　those　concerned　necessarily　exchange　a　merely
economic　for　a　generally　moral　character。　And　therefrom　the
conception　arises；　here　a　common　production　exists；　hence　a　moral
community。　And　that　leads　to　the　question：　Is　the　relation
between　the　participants；　is　the　division　of　the　products　a　just
one？　And　similar　considerations　follow　for　whole　industries；　for
whole　social　classes；　and　this　all　the　more；　the　more　frequently
the　employers　and　the　laborers　are　organized　into　associations
and　societies。　They　also　result　for　whole　States　and　unions　of
States。
　　　　The　moral　communities；　which　play　a　part　in　economics；　follow
sometimes　purely　economic　purposes；　sometimes　other　purposes；　as
above　all　do　local　communities　and　the　State。　The　narrower　their
circle；　the　simpler　and　clearer　their　purpose；　the　more　evident
become　the　qualities；　according　to　which　moral　judgment　compares
and　classifies　men。　The　more　comprehensive　they　are；　the　more
manifold　their　purposes；　the　more　complicated　becomes　the
question　which　qualities　are　concerned；　the　more　fluctuating
becomes　the　judgment　of　what　is　just；　the　more　indispensable　for
customs　and　laws　become　conventional　presumptions　and　standards
in　order　to　attain　something　definite　at　all。
　　　　In　times　of　primitive　culture；　in　the　small　circles　of
economic　and　moral　communities　all　men；　or　at　least　all　men　able
to　bear　arms；　may　readily　appear　equal；　and　so　it　there　appears
just　to　give　each　the　same　allotment　of　land；　the　same　share　of
booty。　The　guild　sought　to　secure　to　each　member　as　nearly　as
possible　an　equal　share　of　profit。　With　higher　culture　begins　the
necessary　discrimination。　Formerly　the　greater　allotments　were
often　given　to　the　bravest　soldier　and　to　the　noble　families；
distinctions　now　become　more　general。　All　inherited　preference　is
considered　just；　in　the　measure　in　which　public　sentiment　values
not　the　qualities　of　the　single　individual；　but　of　families　as　a
whole；　a　conception　which　decreases　more　and　more　with　higher
culture。　Inherited　wealth；　as　long　as　it　appears　necessarily　and
obviously　coupled　with　its　possessor；　is　under　some　conditions
regarded　as　a　just　standard　of　the　distribution　of　goods。　So　the
distribution　of　public　lands　according　to　the　possessions　in
cattle　and　real　estate　appeared　quite　just　to　many　a　day　laborer
and　〃kossaeth〃　in　the　eastern　provinces　of　Prussia；　while　to　one
who　knew　the　public　land　systems　in　France　or　southern　Germany　it
seemed　an　outrageous　injustice。
　　　　For　all　community　of　production；　labor　is　the　most　obvious
standard；　hence　perhaps　it　is　the　most　usual；　most　generally
comprehensible。　As　soon　as　it　becomes　necessary　to　compare　many
different　kinds　of　labor；　only　an　abstraction　totally　foreign　to
public　sentiment　will　conceive　the　idea　of　reducing　all　this
labor　to　mere　quantities　of　handiwork；　natural　public　sentiment
will　simply　value　more　highly　the　labor　which　requires　more
education　or　talent。
　　　　Those　qualities　will　always　be　most　highly　considered　which
serve　the　common　objects；　those　which　only　relate　to　the
individual　and　his　selfish　aims　are　less　esteemed。　Only　a
complete　misconception　therefore　could　establish　individual　needs
as　a　standard　of　distributing　justice。　Older　socialism　wisely
held　aloof　at　all　times　from　this　aberration。　Even　the　first
really　social…democratic　platform　in　Germany；　that　of　Eisenach　of
1869；　did　not　vet　venture　to　commit　such　a　folly。　The　progressive
victory　of　vulgarity　and　rudeness　first　demanded　in　the　Gotha
platform　of　1875　the　division　of　the　aggregate　labor　products
among　individuals　according　to　their　〃reasonable　needs。〃　The
proviso　of　reasonableness　was　intended　to　prevent　excesses；　it
does　not　remove　the　low　conception。　With　his　needs　a　man　serves
himself　only；　with　his　labor；　his　virtue；　his　accomplishments；　he
serves；　mankind；　and　these　determine　the　judgment　which　esteems
them　as　just。
　　　　When　the　great　social　communities　which　follow　the　most