the idea of justice in political economy-第7部分

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introduce　into　our　institutions　through　the　channel　of　ordinary
reform　by　positive　law；　it　is　not　only　necessary　that　the　demand
be　recognized　and　desired　by　the　best　as　right；　that　it　must　have
become　custom　in　certain　places；　that　it　must　have　overcome　the
resisting　powers　of　egoism；　of　listless　indolence　which　clings　to
tradition；　that　it　should　have　triumphed　over　the　eventual
obstruction　of　the　other　ethical　ideas；　which　tending　toward
other　goals；　often　may　be　an　obstacle；　that　it　should　have　become
a　dogma　of　ruling　parties　and　statesmen。　No；　it　must　also　have
evolved　the　qualities　of　a　practicable　formal　law；　it　must　have
reached　fixed　boundaries；　clear　characteristics；　determined
qualities　and　proportions；　it　must　have　traversed　the　long
journey　from　a　conception　of　right　to　a　clearly　defined　and
limited　provision　of　law；　the　fundamental　judgments　of　value　must
be　condensed　to　a　fixed　conventional　scale；　which；　as　a　simple
expression　of　complicated　and　manifold　conditions　still　grasps
their　average　justly。　In　short　the　mechanism　of　positive　law
limits　every　execution　of　material　justice。　We　have　our　formal
right　only　at　the　expense　of　a　partial　material　injustice。
　　　　A　demand　of　justice　in　rewarding　great　inventors　can　to…day
only　become　positive　law　in　patent　legislation；　or　in　the　public
arrangement　of　a　system　of　premiums；　in　which　the　method　of
execution　is　just　as　important　as　the　principle。　A　demand　of
justice　in　regard　to　a　progressive　income　tax　can　count　upon
sympathy　only　when　the　demand　is　based　on　definite　figures　which
correspond　to　the　average　feeling　of　right　of　to…day。　The　demand
of　justice　that　the　employer　should　provide　better　for　his
laborers　becomes　practicable；　when　we　demand　in　detail　and
definitely　that　the　employer　carry　this　or　that　responsibility
for　accidents；　that　he　put　such　and　such　a　contribution　into　the
benefit　fund；　that　he　accept　the　verdict　of　umpires　with　regard
to　wages。　That　the　laborers　should　share　in　the　profits　of　the
enterprise　can　be　discussed　as　a　legal　measure　only　when　definite
experience　shows　the　possibility　of　a　just　execution。　Otherwise
such　a　law；　like　many　other　well…meant　propositions　for　the
improvement　of　the　condition　of　the　lower　classes；　would；　in
consequence　of　the　violation　of　formal　justice；　lead　to
arbitrariness；　to　favoritism；　to　the　discontent　of　the　classes
concerned。　This　is　confirmed　by　all　deeper　knowledge　of　the
results　of　the　administration　of　our　poor　laws。　The　poor　law　is
the　most　important　piece　of　socialism　which　the　German　social
organization　contains。　It　is　a　piece　of　socialism　which　we　could
not　spare　for　the　time　being；　because　we　do　not　know　a　better
substitute；　nor　yet　how　to　meet　otherwise　by　more　perfect
institution　is　the　inevitable　demand　of　justice；　that　every
fellow…being　be　protected　from　starvation。　The　drawback　of　this
poor　law　is　the　absolute　impossibility　of　enforcing　it　in　a
formally　and　materially　just　way。　Arbitrariness；　chance；　red　tape
govern　it；　and　therefore　the　assistance　given　has　in　many　cases
such　unfavorable　psychological　effects；　leading　to　laziness　and
indifference。　As　long　as　the　organs　of　the　administration　do　not
reach　a　far　higher　perfection；　as　long　as　the　formal
possibilities　of　execution　are　not　quite　different；　most
socialistic　experiments　would　only　extend　the　consequences　of　our
poor　laws　to　large　areas　of　our　social　and　economic　organization。
　　　　But　we　must　never　forget　the　distinction　between　means　and
ends。　The　form　of　the　law　is　the　means；　justice；　however；　the
end。　We　may　perceive　that　laws　cannot　do　away　with　every
immorality；　cannot　effect　a　strictly　just　distribution　of
incomes；　that　the　ingenious　tricks　of　astute　and　selfish　business
men　flout　all　decency；　and　find　ways　to　slip　through　the　meshes
of　the　best　laws。　But　this　must　not　restrain　us　from　working　for
justice；　and　from　faith　in　its　victory。　Although　thousands　of
injustices　are　bound　to　occur　in　our　life；　our　best　possession
rests　on　the　idea　of　justice。　All　social　progress　depends　on
further　victories　of　justice。　By　demanding　a　just　distribution　of
incomes；　socialism　has　introduced　nothing　new；　but　has　in
contrast　to　the　errors　which　were　created　by　materialistic
epigones　in　a　short　period　of　so…called　philosophy　of
enlightenment；　only　returned　to　the　great　traditions　of　all
idealistic　social　philosophy。　The　error　of　socialism　was　simply
that　it　overlooked　the　difference　between　material　and　formal
justice；　as　well　as　the　significance　of　other　equally　justified
social　ideal　conceptions；　that　it　imagined　the　individual
conceptions　of　certain　idealists　of　what　is　just；　would　suffice
to　overthrow　suddenly　and　immediately　primeval　institutions。　With
its　crude　excrescences　it　returned　to　standards　of　justice　which
perhaps　correspond　to　the　first　stages　of　civilization；　certainly
to　rough　views；　but　not　to　refined　conceptions　of　higher
morality。
　　　　Socialism　can　teach　us　not　to　demand　a　false　justice；　it
should　never　hinder　us　from　fighting　for　a　true　justice。　History
tells　us　that　progress　has　usually　been　tedious；　it　shows　us　just
as　much　that　at　length　the　greatest　formal　difficulties　have　been
overcome；　that　especially　in　the　great　epochs　of　faith　in　ideals
which　rejuvenate　and　ennoble　men；　the　juster　right；　the　refined
morals　have　triumphed　over　the　powers　of　egoism；　of　sluggishness；
of　stupidity；　and　now　better　and　juster　institutions　have　grown
up。　There　was　a　time　when　the　demand　for　a　just　system　of　trade；
which　is　universally　conceded　to…day；　appeared　as　an　ideal　far　in
advance　of　the　times。　Robberies；　thefts；　frauds；　brawls　in　the
market…places；　extortions　of　gifts　were　the　older　forms　of
transferring　property。　Here　a　thousand　years'　work　in
civilization　has　developed；　in　connection　with　the　progress　of
reined　conceptions　of　justice；　the　institutions　of　law；　which
to…day　govern　and　bind　all　intercourse　as　a　matter　of　course。
　　　　The　leading　conceptions　in　this　work　of　civilization　in　the
past　and　present　do　naturally　not　relate　to　the　whole　society　and
all　its　purposes；　nor　to　all　qualities　of　men。　In　every　ordinary
barter　two　persons；　whose　other　qualities　are　not　conceded　in
this　relation；　which　is　confined　to　this　one　barter；　meet　with
the　purpose　of　advancing　their　mutual　interests　by　the　exchange
of　certain　goods。　This　result　is　reached　if　they　exchange　values
essentially　equal；　if　both　sides　make　equal　profits。　〃The　giving
and　the　taking；〃　　Herbart　says；　〃everywhere　presupposes
compensation；　i。e。；　equality　of　the　given　and　the　taken。〃　
Conceding　the　standards　of　equality　only；　can　there　be　any
dissent。　The　savage　sees　equality　in　purely　external
circumstances；　in　the　fact　that　the　furs　just　fill　the　kettle　for
which　he　trades　them。　The　civilized　man　asks　for　equality　of
money　value；　the　formalist　for　the　equal　absence　of　fraud；　force
and　error。　The　principle　however；　always　remains　the　same。
Equality　measured　in　some　way　is　required。　And　if　the　equality　of
both　sides　required　by　the　conventional　standard　exists；　justice
is　secured　because　the　logical　judgment　and　the　moral　test　does
not　bring　the　single　agreement　into　relation　with　the　total
distribution　of　incomes；　with　the　total　worthiness　of　the
persons。　Only　a　fool　could　require　as　a　demand　of　justice；　that
the　grocer　grade　the　price　of　a　pound　of　coffee　according　to　the
wealth　of　each　customer；　or　that　in　a　publishing　contract　the
publisher　should　pay　to　the　author　of　an　unsalable　scientific
book　a　large　sum　because　it　is　a　work　of　great　labor　and　skill。
The　justice　of　a　single　bargain　is　the　so…called　exchanging
justice；　as　Trendelenburg　in　his　admirable　essays　on　Aristotle
has　proved　to　be　the　real　meaning　of　the　great　Stagaryte。　This
exchanging　justice　is　nevertheless　not　in　strict　contrast　to
distributive　justice；　it　is　only　one　of　its　subdivisions；　which
concerts　not　the　whole　society　and　all　its　purposes；　but　simply　a
part　of　them　and　an　especial　purpose。
　　　　As　long　as　the　value　of　every　good　thing　is　a　different　one
for　each　man；　so　long　a　certain　inequality　of　profits　will　not
seem　unjust。　Only　when　this　equality　oversteps　certain　bounds；
when　its　cause　is　not　the　free　decision　of　a　free　man；　does　a
lively　feeling　of　injustice　arise　and　seek　a　legal　remedy。　For
thousands　of　years　the　selfish　impulses　of　those　who　in　the
social　struggle　of　competition　are　the　stronger；　have　demanded
unconditional　freedom　of　contract；　and　this　demand　is　always
opposed　by　public　conscience　and　the　demand　of　the　weaker；　which
establishes　the　conception　of　justum　pretium；　which　requires　a
governmental　regulation　of　prices；　statutes　on　usury；
consideration　for　the　〃laesio　enormis；〃　　public　control　of　abuses
in　trade　and　traffic；　a　restriction　of　exploitation。　This
requirement　disappears　only　when　two　real　equals　meet；　who　as　a
rule　derive　equal　benefit　from　their　commercial　relations。
　　　　The　older　economic　school　of　Adam　Smith；　as　we　suggested　in
our　introduction；　had　found　its　ideal　of　justice　exclusively　in
the　freedom　of　contracts。　Presuming　that　all　men　are　by　nature
equal；　it　demanded　only　freedom　for　these　equal　men；　in　the　hope
that　this　would　result　in　agreements　about　equal　values　with
equal　profits　for　both　parties。　It　knew　neither　the　social
classes　nor　the　social　institutions　in　their　significance　for
economic　life；　for　it　the　social　mechanism　was　composed
exclusively　of　the　activity　of　individuals　and　their　single
agreements。　And　therefore　it　could　not　demand　any　other　kind　of
justice。　This　was　not　wrong；　but　it　was　only　a　part　of　the　〃just〃
which　it　demanded。
　　　　We　demand　to…day　above　all；　besides　a　just　system　of　barter；
just　economic　institutions；　i。e。；　we　demand　that　the　complexes　of
rules　of　morals　and　right　which　govern　groups　of　men　who　live　and
work　together　should　harmonize　in　their　results　with　those　ideal
conceptions　of　justice　which　on　the　basis　of　our　moral　and
religious　conceptions　are　prevalent　to…day；　or　which　are　gaining
recognition。　We　do　not　acknowledge　any　one　of　these　institutions
to　be　above　history；　as　having　always　existed　or　as　necessity
everlasting。　We　test　the　result　of　every　one　of　them；　and