the ancien regime-第8部分

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their　whole　hearts　and　minds。　　They　tried　to　teach　agriculture　by

schools　and　pamphlets　and　prizes；　they　sent　out　plans　for　every

public　work。　　A　town　could　not　establish　an　octroi；　levy　a　rate；

mortgage；　sell；　sue；　farm；　or　administer　their　property；　without　an

order　in　council。　　The　Government　ordered　public　rejoicings；　saw　to

the　firing　of　salutes；　and　illuminating　of　housesin　one　case

mentioned　by　M。　de　Tocqueville；　they　fined　a　member　of　the　burgher

guard　for　absenting　himself　from　a　Te　Deum。　　All　self…government　was

gone。　　A　country　parish　was；　says　Turgot；　nothing　but　〃an　assemblage

of　cabins；　and　of　inhabitants　as　passive　as　the　cabins　they　dwelt

in。〃　　Without　an　order　of　council；　the　parish　could　not　mend　the

steeple　after　a　storm；　or　repair　the　parsonage　gable。　　If　they

grumbled　at　the　intendant；　he　threw　some　of　the　chief　persons　into

prison；　and　made　the　parish　pay　the　expenses　of　the　horse　patrol；

which　formed　the　arbitrary　police　of　France。　　Everywhere　was

meddling。　　There　were　reports　on　statisticscircumstantial；

inaccurate；　and　uselessas　statistics　are　too　often　wont　to　be。

Sometimes；　when　the　people　were　starving；　the　Government　sent　down

charitable　donations　to　certain　parishes；　on　condition　that　the

inhabitants　should　raise　a　sum　on　their　part。　　When　the　sum　offered

was　sufficient；　the　Comptroller…General　wrote　on　the　margin；　when　he

returned　the　report　to　the　intendant；　〃Goodexpress　satisfaction。〃

If　it　was　more　than　sufficient；　he　wrote；　〃Goodexpress

satisfaction　and　sensibility。〃　　There　is　nothing　new　under　the　sun。

In　1761；　the　Government；　jealous　enough　of　newspapers；　determined　to

start　one　for　itself；　and　for　that　purpose　took　under　its　tutelage

the　Gazette　de　France。　　So　the　public　newsmongers　were　of　course　to

be　the　provincial　intendants；　and　their　sub…newsmongers；　of　course；

the　sub…delegates。



But　alas！　the　poor　sub…delegates　seem　to　have　found　either　very

little　news；　or　very　little　which　it　was　politic　to　publish。　　One

reports　that　a　smuggler　of　salt　has　been　hung；　and　has　displayed

great　courage；　another　that　a　woman　in　his　district　has　had　three

girls　at　a　birth；　another　that　a　dreadful　storm　has　happened；　but

has　done　no　mischief；　a　fourthliving　in　some　specially　favoured

Utopiadeclares　that　in　spite　of　all　his　efforts　he　has　found

nothing　worth　recording；　but　that　he　himself　will　subscribe　to　so

useful　a　journal；　and　will　exhort　all　respectable　persons　to　follow

his　example：　　in　spite　of　which　loyal　endeavours；　the　journal　seems

to　have　proved　a　failure；　to　the　great　disgust　of　the　king　and　his

minister；　who　had　of　course　expected　to　secure　fine　weather　by

nailing；　like　the　schoolboy　before　a　holiday；　the　hand　of　the

weather…glass。



Well　had　it　been；　if　the　intermeddling　of　this　bureaucracy　had

stopped　there。　　But；　by　a　process　of　evocation　（as　it　was　called）；

more　and　more　causes；　criminal　as　well　as　civil；　were　withdrawn　from

the　regular　tribunals；　to　those　of　the　intendants　and　the　Council。

Before　the　intendant　all　the　lower　order　of　people　were　generally

sent　for　trial。　　Bread…riots　were　a　common　cause　of　such　trials；　and

M。　de　Tocqueville　asserts　that　he　has　found　sentences；　delivered　by

the　intendant；　and　a　local　council　chosen　by　himself；　by　which　men

were　condemned　to　the　galleys；　and　even　to　death。　　Under　such　a

system；　under　which　an　intendant　must　have　felt　it　his　interest　to

pretend　at　all　risks；　that　all　was　going　right；　and　to　regard　any

disturbance　as　a　dangerous　exposure　of　himself　and　his　chiefsone

can　understand　easily　enough　that　scene　which　Mr。　Carlyle　has

dramatised　from　Lacretelle；　concerning　the　canaille；　the　masses；　as

we　used　to　call　them　a　generation　since：



〃A　dumb　generationtheir　voice　only　an　inarticulate　cry。

Spokesman；　in　the　king's　council；　in　the　world's　forum；　they　have

none　that　finds　credence。　　At　rare　intervals　（as　now；　in　1775）　they

will　fling　down　their　hoes；　and　hammers；　and；　to　the　astonishment　of

mankind；　flock　hither　and　thither；　dangerous；　aimless；　get　the

length　even　of　Versailles。　　Turgot　is　altering　the　corn　trade；

abrogating　the　absurdest　corn　laws；　there　is　dearth；　real；　or　were

it　even　factitious；　an　indubitable　scarcity　of　broad。　　And　so；　on

the　2nd　day　of　May；　1775；　these　waste　multitudes　do　here；　at

Versailles　chateau；　in　widespread　wretchedness；　in　sallow　faces；

squalor；　winged　raggedness；　present　as　in　legible　hieroglyphic

writing　their　petition　of　grievances。　　The　chateau…gates　must　be

shut；　but　the　king　will　appear　on　the　balcony　and　speak　to　them。

They　have　seen　the　king's　face；　their　petition　of　grievances　has

been；　if　not　read；　looked　at。　　In　answer；　two　of　them　are　hanged；　on

a　new　gallows　forty　feet　high；　and　the　rest　driven　back　to　their

dens　for　a　time。〃



Of　course。　　What　more　exasperating　and　inexpiable　insult　to　the

ruling　powers　was　possible　than　this？　　To　persist　in　being　needy　and

wretched；　when　a　whole　bureaucracy　is　toiling　day　and　night　to　make

them　prosperous　and　happy？　　An　insult　only　to　be　avenged　in　blood。

Remark　meanwhile；　that　this　centralised　bureaucracy　was　a　failure；

that　after　all　the　trouble　taken　to　govern　these　masses；　they　were

not　governed；　in　the　sense　of　being　made　better；　and　not　worse。　　The

truth　is；　that　no　centralised　bureaucracy；　or　so…called　〃paternal

government；〃　yet　invented　on　earth；　has　been　anything　but　a　failure；

or　is　it　like　to　be　anything　else：　　because　it　is　founded　on　an

error；　because　it　regards　and　treats　men　as　that　which　they　are　not；

as　things；　and　not　as　that　which　they　are；　as　persons。　　If　the

bureaucracy　were　a　mere　Briareus　giant；　with　a　hundred　hands；

helping　the　weak　throughout　the　length　and　breadth　of　the　empire；

the　system　might　be　at　least　tolerable。　　But　what　if　the　Government

were　not　a　Briareus　with　a　hundred　hands；　but　a　Hydra　with　a　hundred

heads　and　mouths；　each　far　more　intent　on　helping　itself　than　on

helping　the　people？　　What　if　sub…delegates　and　other　officials；

holding　office　at　the　will　of　the　intendant；　had　to　live；　and　even

provide　against　a　rainy　day？　　What　if　intendants；　holding　office　at

the　will　of　the　Comptroller…General；　had　to　do　more　than　live；　and

found　it　prudent　to　realise　as　large　a　fortune　as　possible；　not　only

against　disgrace；　but　against　success；　and　the　dignity　fit　for　a　new

member　of　the　Noblesse　de　la　Robe？　　Would　not　the　system；　then；　soon

become　intolerable？　　Would　there　not　be　evil　times　for　the　masses；

till　they　became　something　more　than　masses？



It　is　an　ugly　name；　that　of　〃The　Masses；〃　for　the　great　majority　of

human　beings　in　a　nation。　　He　who　uses　it　speaks　of　them　not　as

human　beings；　but　as　things；　and　as　things　not　bound　together　in　one

living　body；　but　lying　in　a　fortuitous　heap。　　A　swarm　of　ants　is　not

a　mass。　　It　has　a　polity　and　a　unity。　　Not　the　ants　but　the　fir…

needles　and　sticks；　of　which　the　ants　have　piled　their　nest；　are　a

mass。



The　term；　I　believe；　was　invented　during　the　Ancien　Regime。　　Whether

it　was　or　not；　it　expresses　very　accurately　the　life　of　the　many　in

those　days。　　No　one　would　speak；　if　he　wished　to　speak　exactly；　of

the　masses　of　the　United　States；　for　there　every　man　is；　or　is

presumed　to　be；　a　personage；　with　his　own　independence；　his　own

activities；　his　own　rights　and　duties。　　No　one；　I　believe；　would

have　talked　of　the　masses　in　the　old　feudal　times；　for　then　each

individual　was　someone's　man；　bound　to　his　master　by　ties　of　mutual

service；　just　or　unjust；　honourable　or　base；　but　still　giving　him　a

personality　of　duties　and　rights；　and　dividing　him　from　his　class。



Dividing；　I　say。　　The　poor　of　the　Middle　Age　had　little　sense　of　a

common　humanity。　　Those　who　owned　allegiance　to　the　lord　in　the　next

valley　were　not　their　brothers；　and　at　their　own　lord's　bidding；

they　buckled　on　sword　and　slew　the　next　lord's　men；　with　joyful

heart　and　good　conscience。　　Only　now　and　then　misery　compressed　them

into　masses；　and　they　ran　together；　as　sheep　run　together　to　face　a

dog。　　Some　wholesale　wrong　made　them　aware　that　they　were　brothers；

at　least　in　the　power　of　starving；　and　they　joined　in　the　cry　which

was　heard；　I　believe；　in　Mecklenburg　as　late　as　1790：　　〃Den　Edelman

wille　wi　dodschlagen。〃　　Then；　in　Wat　Tyler's　insurrections；　in

Munster　Anabaptisms；　in　Jacqueries；　they　proved　themselves　to　be

masses；　if　nothing　better；　striking　for　awhile；　by　the　mere　weight

of　numbers；　blows　terrible；　though　aimlesssoon　to　be　dispersed　and

slain　in　their　turn　by　a　disciplined　and　compact　aristocracy。　　Yet

not　always　dispersed；　if　they　could　find　a　leader；　as　the　Polish

nobles　discovered　to　their　cost　in　the　middle　of　the　seventeenth

century。　　Then　Bogdan　the　Cossack；　a　wild　warrior；　not　without　his

sins；　but　having　deserved　well　of　James　Sobieski　and　the　Poles；

found　that　the　neighbouring　noble's　steward　had　taken　a　fancy　to　his

windmill　and　his　farm　upon　the　Dnieper。　　He　was　thrown　into　prison

on　a　frivolous　charge；　and　escaped　to　the　Tatars；　leaving　his　wife

dishonoured；　his　house　burnt；　his　infant　lost　in　the　flames；　his

eldest　son　scourged　for　protesting　against　the　wrong。　　And　he

returned；　at　the　head　of　an　army　of　Tatars；　Socinians；　Greeks；　or

what　not；　to　set　free　the　serfs；　and　exterminate　Jesuits；　Jews；　and

nobles；　throughout　Podolia；　Volhynia；　Red　Russia；　to　desecrate　the

altars　of　God；　and　slay　his　servants；　to　destroy　the　nobles　by

lingering　tortures；　to　strip　noble　ladies　and　maidens；　and　hunt　them

to　death　with　the　whips　of　his　Cossacks；　and　after　defeating　the

nobles　in　battle　after　battle；　to　inaugurate　an　era　of　misery　and

anarchy　from　which　Poland　never　recovered。



Thus　did　the　masses　of　Southern　Poland　discover；　for　one　generation

at　least；　that　they　were　not　many　things；　but　one　thing；　a　class；

capable　of　brotherhood　and　unity；　though；　alas！　only　of　such　as

belongs　to　a　pack　of　wolves。　　But　such　outbursts　as　this　were　rare

exceptions。　　In　gener