the boss and the machine-第17部分

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the　mid…election　in　1866；　they　organized　a　Congressional　Campaign
Committee　to　conduct　the　canvass。　This　practice　has　been
continued　by　both　parties；　and　in　〃off〃　years　it　plays　a　very
prominent　part　in　the　party　campaign。　Congress　alone；　however；
was　only　half　the　conquest。　It　was　only　through　control　of　the
Administration　that　access　was　gained　to　the　succulent　herbage　of
federal　pasturage　and　that　vast　political　prestige　with　the　voter
was　achieved。

The　President　is　nominally　the　head　of　his　party。　In　reality　he
may　not　be；　he　may　be　only　the　President。　That　depends　upon　his
personality；　his　desires；　his　hold　upon　Congress　and　upon　the
people；　and　upon　the　circumstances　of　the　hour。　During　the　Grant
Administration；　as　already　described；　there　existed；　in　every
sense　of　the　term；　a　federal　machine。　It　held　Congress；　the
Executive；　and　the　vast　federal　patronage　in　its　power。　All　the
federal　office…holders；　all　the　postmasters　and　their　assistants；
revenue　collectors；　inspectors；　clerks；　marshals；　deputies；
consuls；　and　ambassadors　were　a　part　of　the　organization；
contributing　to　its　maintenance。　We　often　hear　today　of　the
〃Federal　Crowd；〃　a　term　used　to　describe　such　appointees　as　still
subsist　on　presidential　and　senatorial　favor。　In　Grant's　time；
this　〃crowd〃　was　a　genuine　machine；　constructed；　unlike　some　of
its　successors；　from　the　center　outward。　But　the　〃boss〃　of　this
machine　was　not　the　President。　It　was　controlled　by　a　group　of
leading　Congressmen；　who　used　their　power　for　dictating
appointments　and　framing　〃desirable〃　legislation。　Grant；　in　the
imagination　of　the　people；　symbolized　the　cause　their　sacrifices
had　won；　and　thus　his　moral　prestige　became　the　cloak　of　the
political　plotters。

A　number　of　the　ablest　men　in　the　Republican　party；　however；
stood　aloof；　and　by　1876　a　movement　against　the　manipulators　had
set　in。　Civil　service　reform　had　become　a　real　issue。　Hayes；　the
〃dark　horse〃　who　was　nominated　in　that　year；　declared；　in
accepting　the　nomination；　that　〃reform　should　be　thorough；
radical；　and　complete。〃　He　promised　not　to　be　a　candidate　for　a
second　term；　thus　avoiding　the　temptation；　to　which　almost　every
President　has　succumbed；　of　using　the　patronage　to　secure　his
reelection。　The　party　managers　pretended　not　to　hear　these
promises。　And　when　Hayes；　after　his　inauguration；　actually　began
to　put　them　into　force；　they　set　the　whole　machinery　of　the　party
against　the　President。　Matters　came　to　a　head　when　the　President
issued　an　order　commanding　federal　office…holders　to　refrain　from
political　activity。　This　order　was　generally　defied；　especially
in　New　York　City　in　the　post…office　and　customs　rings。　Two
notorious　offenders；　Cornell　and　Arthur；　were　dismissed　from
office　by　the　President。　But　the　Senate；　influenced　by　Roscoe
Conkling's　power；　refused　to　confirm　the　President's　new
appointees；　and　under　the　Tenure　of　Office　Act；　which　had　been
passed　to　tie　President　Johnson's　hands；　the　offenders　remained
in　office　over　a　year。　The　fight　disciplined　the　President　and
the　machine　in　about　equal　proportions。　The　President　became　more
amenable　and　the　machine　less　arbitrary。

President　Garfield　attempted　the　impossible　feat　of　obliging　both
the　politicians　and　the　reformers。　He　was　persuaded　to　make
nominations　to　federal　offices　in　New　York　without　consulting
either　of　the　senators　from　that　State；　Conkling　and　Platt。
Conkling　appealed　to　the　Senate　to　reject　the　New　York　appointees
sent　in　by　the　President。　The　Senate　failed　to　sustain　him。
Conkling　and　his　colleague　Platt　resigned　from　the　Senate　and
appealed　to　the　New　York　legislature；　which　also　refused　to
sustain　them。

While　this　absurd　farce　was　going　on；　a　more　serious　ferment　was
brewing。　On　July　2；　1881；　President　Garfield　was　assassinated　by
a　disappointed　office…seeker　named　Guiteau。　The　attention　of　the
people　was　suddenly　turned　from　the　ridiculous　diversion　of　the
Conkling　incident　to　the　tragedy　and　its　cause。　They　saw　the
chief　office　in　their　gift　a　mere　pawn　in　the　game　of
place…seekers；　the　time　and　energy　of　their　President　wasted　in
bickerings　with　congressmen　over　petty　appointments；　and　the
machinery　of　their　Government　dominated　by　the　machinery　of　the
party　for　ignoble　or　selfish　ends。

At　last　the　advocates　of　reform　found　their　opportunity。　In　1883
the　Civil　Service　Act　was　passed；　taking　from　the　President　about
14；000　appointments。　Since　then　nearly　every　President；　towards
the　end　of　his　term；　especially　his　second　term；　has　added　to　the
numbers；　until　nearly　two…thirds　of　the　federal　offices　are　now
filled　by　examination。　President　Cleveland　during　his　second　term
made　sweeping　additions。　President　Roosevelt　found　about　100；000
in　the　classified　service　and　left　200；000。　President　Taft；
before　his　retirement；　placed　in　the　classified　service　assistant
postmasters　and　clerks　in　first　and　second…class　postoffices；
about　42；000　rural　delivery　carriers；　and　over　20；000　skilled
workers　in　the　navy　yards。

The　appointing　power　of　the　President；　however；　still　remains　the
principal　point　of　his　contact　with　the　machine。　He　has；　of
course；　other　means　of　showing　partizan　favors。　Tariff　laws；　laws
regulating　interstate　commerce；　reciprocity　treaties；　〃pork
barrels；〃　pensions；　financial　policies；　are　all　pregnant　with
political　possibilities。

The　second　official　unit　in　the　national　political　hierarchy　is
the　House　of　Representatives；　controlling　the　pursestrings；　which
have　been　the　deadly　noose　of　many　executive　measures。　The　House
is　elected　every　two　years；　so　that　it　may　ever　be　〃near　to　the
people〃！　This　produces　a　reflex　not　anticipated　by　the　Fathers　of
the　Constitution。　It　gives　the　representative　brief　respite　from
the　necessities　of　politics；　and　hence　little　time　for　the
necessities　of　the　State。

The　House　attained　the　zenith　of　its　power　when　it　arraigned
President　Johnson　at　the　bar　of　the　Senate　for　high　crimes　and
misdemeanors　in　office。　It　had　shackled　his　appointing　power　by
the　Tenure　of　Office　Act；　it　had　forced　its　plan　of
reconstruction　over　his　veto；　and　now　it　led　him；　dogged　and
defiant；　to　a　political　trial。　Within　a　few　years　the　character
of　the　House　changed。　A　new　generation　interested　in　the　issues
of　prosperity；　rather　than　those　of　the　war；　entered　public　life。
The　House　grew　unwieldy　in　size　and　its　business　increased
alarmingly。　The　minority；　meanwhile；　retained　the　power；　through
filibustering；　to　hold　up　the　business　of　the　country。

It　was　under　such　conditions　that　Speaker　Reed；　in　1890；　crowned
himself　〃Czar〃　by　compelling　a　quorum。　This　he　did　by　counting　as
actually　present　all　members　whom　the　clerk　reported　as　〃present
but　not　voting。〃　The　minority　fought　desperately　for　its　last
privilege　and　even　took　a　case　to　the　Supreme　Court　to　test　the
constitutionality　of　a　law　passed　by　a　Reed…made　quorum。　The
court　concurred　with　the　sensible　opinion　of　the　country　that
〃when　the　quorum　is　present；　it　is　there　for　the　purpose　of　doing
business；〃　an　opinion　that　was　completely　vindicated　when　the
Democratic　minority　became　a　majority　and　adopted　the　rule　for
its　own　advantage。

By　this　ruling；　the　Speakership　was　lifted　to　a　new　eminence。　The
party　caucus；　which　nominated　the　Speaker；　and　to　which　momentous
party　questions　were　referred；　gave　solidarity　to　the　party。　But
the　influence　of　the　Speaker；　through　his　power　of　appointing
committees；　of　referring　bills；　of　recognizing　members　who　wished
to　participate　in　debate；　insured　that　discipline　and　centralized
authority　which　makes　mass　action　effective。　The　power　of　the
Speaker　was　further　enlarged　by　the　creation　of　the　Rules
Committee；　composed　of　the　Speaker　and　two　members　from　each
party　designated　by　him。　This　committee　formed　a　triumvirate　（the
minority　members　were　merely　formal　members）　which　set　the　limits
of　debate；　proposed　special　rules　for　such　occasions　as　the
committee　thought　proper；　and　virtually　determined　the　destiny　of
bills。　So　it　came　about；　as　Bryce　remarks；　that　the　choice　of　the
Speaker　was　〃a　political　event　of　the　highest　significance。〃

It　was　under　the　regency　of　Speaker　Cannon　that　the　power　of　the
Speaker's　office　attained　its　climax。　The　Republicans　had　a　large
majority　in　the　House　and　the　old　war…horses　felt　like　colts。
They　assumed　their　leadership；　however；　with　that　obliviousness
to　youth　which　usually　characterizes　old　age。　The　gifted　and
attractive　Reed　had　ruled　often　by　aphorism　and　wit；　but　the
unimaginative　Cannon　ruled　by　the　gavel　alone；　and　in　the　course
of　time　he　and　his　clique　of　veterans　forgot　entirely　the
difference　between　power　and　leadership。

Even　party　regularity　could　not　long　endure　such　tyranny。　It　was
not　against　party　organization　that　the　insurgents　finally　raised
their　lances；　but　against　the　arbitrary　use　of　the　machinery　of
the　organization　by　a　small　group　of　intrenched　〃standpatters。〃
The　revolt　began　during　the　debate　on　the　Payne…Aldrich　tariff；
and　in　the　campaign　of　1908　〃Cannonism〃　was　denounced　from　the
stump　in　every　part　of　the　country。　By　March；　1910；　the
insurgents　were　able；　with　the　aid　of　the　Democrats；　to　amend　the
rules；　increasing　the　Committee　on　Rules　to　ten　to　be　elected　by
the　House　and　making　the　Speaker　ineligible　for　membership。　When
the　Democrats　secured　control　of　the　House　in　the　following　year；
the　rules　were　revised；　and　the　selection　of　all　committees　is
now　determined　by　a　Committee　on　Committees　chosen　in　party
caucus。　This　change　shifts　arbitrary　power　from　the　shoulders　of
the　Speaker　to　the　shoulders　of　the　party　chieftains。　The　power
of　the　Speaker　has　been　lessened　but　by　no　means　destroyed。　He　is
still　the　party　chanticleer。

The　political　power　of　the　House；　however；　cannot　be　calculated
without　admitting　to　the　equation　the　Senate；　the　third　official
unit；　and；　indeed；　the　most　powerful　factor　in　the　national
hierarchy。　The　Senate　shares　equally　with　the　House　the
responsibility　of　lawmaking；　and　shares　with　the　President　the
responsibility　of　appointments　and　of　treaty…making。　It　has　been
the　scene　of　many　memorable　contests　with　the　President　for
political　control。　The　senators