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the　third；　Galileo；　who　〃taught　the　world　what　dogmatic　theology



is　worth　when　it　can　be　tested　by　science。〃







I　purpose　now　to　present　the　second　of　these。　As　a　MAN；　he　was　by



far　the　greatest　of　the　three　and；　in　various　respects；　the　most



interesting；　for　he　not　only　threw　a　bright　light　into　the　most



important　general　council　of　the　Church　and　revealed　to



Christendom　the　methods　which　there　prevailed；in　a　book　which



remains　one　of　the　half…dozen　classic　histories　of　the



world；but　he　fought　the　most　bitter　fight　for　humanity　against



the　papacy　ever　known　in　any　Latin　nation；　and　won　a　victory　by



which　the　whole　world　has　profited　ever　since。　Moreover；　he　was



one　of　the　two　foremost　Italian　statesmen　since　the　Middle　Ages；



the　other　being　Cavour。







He　was　born　at　Venice　in　1552；　and　it　may　concern　those　who　care



to　note　the　subtle　interweaving　of　the　warp　and　woof　of　history



that　the　birth　year　of　this　most　resourceful　foe　that　Jesuitism



ever　had　was　the　death　year　of　St。　Francis　Xavier；　the　noblest　of



Jesuit　apostles。







It　may　also　interest　those　who　study　the　more　evident　evolution



of　cause　and　effect　in　human　affairs　to　note　that；　like　most



strong　men；　he　had　a　strong　mother；　that　while　his　father　was　a



poor　shopkeeper　who　did　little　and　died　young；　his　mother　was



wise　and　serene。







From　his　earliest　boyhood；　he　showed　striking　gifts　and



characteristics。　He　never　forgot　a　face　once　seen；　could　take　in



the　main　contents　of　a　page　at　a　glance；　spoke　little；　rarely　ate



meat；　and；　until　his　last　years；　never　drank　wine。







Brought　up；　after　the　death　of　his　father；　first　by　his　uncle；　a



priest；　and　then　by　Capella；　a　Servite　monk；　in　something　better



than　the　usual　priestly　fashion；　he　became　known；　while　yet　in



his　boyhood；　as　a　theological　prodigy。　Disputations　in　his　youth；



especially　one　at　Mantua；　where；　after　the　manner　of　the　time；　he



successfully　defended　several　hundred　theses　against　all　comers；



attracted　wide　attention；　so　that　the　Bishop　gave　him　a



professorship；　and　the　Duke；　who；　like　some　other　crowned　heads



of　those　days；notably　Henry　VIII。　and　James　I。；liked　to



dabble　in　theology；　made　him　a　court　theologian。　But　the　duties



of　this　position　were　uncongenial：　a　flippant　duke；　fond　of



putting　questions　which　the　wisest　theologian　could　not　answer；



and　laying　out　work　which　the　young　scholar　evidently　thought



futile；　apparently　wearied　him。　He　returned　to　the　convent　of　the



Servites　at　Venice；　and　became；　after　a　few　years'　novitiate；　a



friar；　changing；　at　the　same　time；　his　name；　so　that；　having　been



baptized　Peter；　he　now　became　Paul。







His　career　soon　seemed　to　reveal　another　and　underlying　cause　of



his　return：　he　evidently　felt　the　same　impulse　which　stirred　his



contemporaries；　Lord　Bacon　and　Galileo；　for　he　began　devoting



himself　to　the　whole　range　of　scientific　and　philosophical



studies；　especially　to　mathematics；　physics；　astronomy；　anatomy；



and　physiology。　In　these　he　became　known　as　an　authority；　and



before　long　was　recognized　as　such　through　out　Europe。　It　is



claimed；　and　it　is　not　improbable；　that　he　anticipated　Harvey　in



discovering　the　circulation　of　the　blood；　and　that　he　was　the



forerunner　of　noted　discoveries　in　magnetism。　Unfortunately　the



loss　of　the　great　mass　of　his　papers　by　the　fire　which　destroyed



his　convent　in　1769　forbids　any　full　estimate　of　his　work；　but　it



is　certain　that　among　those　who　sought　his　opinion　and　advice



were　such　great　discoverers　as　Acquapendente；　Galileo；



Torricelli；　and　Gilbert　of　Colchester；　and　that　every　one　of



these　referred　to　him　as　an　equal；　and　indeed　as　a　master。　It



seems　also　established　that　it　was　he　who　first　discovered　the



valves　of　the　veins；　that　he　made　known　the　most　beautiful



function　of　the　iris；its　contractility；and　that　various



surmises　of　his　regarding　heat；　light；　and　sound　have　since　been



developed　into　scientific　truths。　It　is　altogether　likely　that；



had　he　not　been　drawn　from　scientific　pursuits　by　his　duties　as　a



statesman；　he　would　have　ranked　among　the　greater　investigators



and　discoverers；　not　only　of　Italy；　but　of　the　world。







He　also　studied　political　and　social　problems；　and　he　arrived　at



one　conclusion　which；　though　now　trite；　was　then　novel；the



opinion　that　the　aim　of　punishment　should　not　be　vengeance；　but



reformation。　In　these　days　and　in　this　country；　where　one　of　the



most　serious　of　evils　is　undue　lenity　to　crime；　this　opinion　may



be　imputed　to　him　as　a　fault；　but　in　those　days；　when　torture　was



the　main　method　in　procedure　and　in　penalty；　his　declaration　was



honorable　both　to　his　head　and　heart。







With　all　his　devotion　to　books；　he　found　time　to　study　men。　Even



at　school；　he　had　seemed　to　discern　those　who　would　win　control。



They　discerned　something　in　him　also；　so　that　close　relations



were　formed　between　him　and　such　leaders　as　Contarini　and



Morosini；　with　whom　he　afterwards　stood　side　by　side　in　great



emergencies。







Important　missions　were　entrusted　to　him。　Five　times　he　visited



Rome　to　adjust　perplexing　differences　between　the　papal　power　and



various　interests　at　Venice。　He　was　rapidly　advanced　through　most



of　the　higher　offices　in　his　order；　and　in　these　he　gave　a　series



of　decisions　which　won　the　respect　of　all　entitled　to　form　an



opinion。







Naturally　he　was　thought　of　for　high　place　in　the　Church；　and　was



twice　presented　for　a　bishopric；　but　each　time　he　was　rejected　at



Rome；partly　from　family　claims　of　less　worthy　candidates；



partly　from　suspicions　regarding　his　orthodoxy。　It　was　objected



that　he　did　not　find　the　whole　doctrine　of　the　Trinity　in　the



first　verse　of　Genesis；　that　he　corresponded　with　eminent



heretics　of　England　and　Germany；　that　he　was　not　averse　to



reforms；　that；　in　short；　he　was　not　inclined　to　wallow　in　the



slime　from　which　had　crawled　forth　such　huge　incarnations　of　evil



as　John　XXIII。；　Julius　II。；　Sixtus　IV。；　and　Alexander　VI。







His　orthodox　detractors　have　been　wont　to　represent　him　as



seeking　vengeance　for　his　non…promotion；　but　his　after　career



showed　amply　that　personal　grievances　had　little　effect　upon　him。



It　is　indeed　not　unlikely　that　when　he　saw　bishoprics　for　which



he　knew　himself　well　fitted　given　as　sops　to　poor　creatures



utterly　unfit　in　morals　or　intellect；　he　may　have　had　doubts



regarding　the　part　taken　by　the　Almighty　in　selecting　them；　but



he　was　reticent；　and　kept　on　with　his　work。　In　his　cell　at　Santa



Fosca；　he　quietly　and　steadily　devoted　himself　to　his　cherished



studies；　but　he　continued　to　study　more　than　books　or　inanimate



nature。　He　was　neither　a　bookworm　nor　a　pedant。　On　his　various



missions　he　met　and　discoursed　with　churchmen　and　statesmen



concerned　in　the　greatest　transactions　of　his　time；　notably　at



Mantua　with　Oliva；　secretary　of　one　of　the　greatest　ecclesiastics



at　the　Council　of　Trent；　at　Milan　with　Cardinal　Borromeo；　by　far



the　noblest　of　all　who　sat　in　that　assemblage　during　its　eighteen



years；　in　Rome　and　elsewhere　with　Arnauld　Ferrier；　who　had　been



French　Ambassador　at　the　Council；　Cardinal　Severina；　head　of　the



Inquisition；　Castagna；　afterward　Pope　Urban　VII。；　and　Cardinal



Bellarmine；　afterward　Sarpi's　strongest　and　noblest　opponent。







Nor　was　this　all。　He　was　not　content　with　books　or　conversations；



steadily　he　went　on　collecting；　collating；　and　testing　original



documents　bearing　upon　the　great　events　of　his　time。　The　result



of　all　this　the　world　was　to　see　later。







He　had　arrived　at　middle　life　and　won　wide　recognition　as　a



scholar；　scientific　investigator；　and　jurist；　when　there　came　the



supreme　moment　of　a　struggle　which　had　involved　Europe　for



centuries；a　struggle　interesting　not　only　the　Italy　and　Europe



of　those　days；　but　universal　humanity　for　all　time。







During　the　period　following　the　fall　of　the　Roman　Empire　of　the



West　there　had　been　evolved　the　temporal　power　of　the　Roman



Bishop。　It　had　many　vicissitudes。　Sometimes；　as　in　the　days　of



St。　Leo　and　St。　Gregory；　it　based　its　claims　upon　noble



assertions　of　right　and　justice；　and　sometimes；　as　in　the　hands



of　pontiffs　like　Innocent　VIII。　and　Paul　V。；　it　sought　to　force



its　way　by　fanaticism。　Sometimes　it　strengthened　its　authority　by



real　services　to　humanity；　and　sometimes　by　such　monstrous　frauds



as　the　Forged　Decretals。　Sometimes；　as　under　Popes　like　Gregory



VII。　and　Innocent　III。；　it　laid　claim　to　the　mastership　of　the



world；　and　sometimes；　as　with　the　majority　of　the　pontiffs　during



the　two　centuries　before　the　Reformation；　it　became　mainly　the



appanage　of　a　party　or　faction　or　family。







Throughout　all　this　history；　there　appeared　in　the　Church　two



great　currents　of　efficient　thought。　On　one　side　had　been



developed　a　theocratic　theory；　giving　the　papacy　a　power　supreme



in　temporal　as　well　as　in　spiritual　matters　throughout　the　world。



Leaders　in　this　during　the　Middle　Ages　were　St。　Thomas　Aquinas



and　the　Dominicans；　leaders　in　Sarpi's　days　were　the　Jesuits；



represented　especially　in　the　treatises　of　Bellarmine　at　Rome　and



in　the　speeches　of　Laynez　at　the　Council　of　Trent。＇1＇











＇1＇　This　has　been　admirably　shown　by　N。　R。　F。　Brown　in　his



Taylorian　Lecture；　pages　229…234；　in　volume　for　1889…99。











But　another　theory；　hostile　to　the　despotism　of　the　Church　over



the　S