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But　another　theory；　hostile　to　the　despotism　of　the　Church　over



the　State；　had　been　developed　through　the　Middle　Ages　and　the



Renaissance；it　had　been　strengthened　mainly　by　the　utterances



of　such　men　as　Dante；　aegidio　Colonna；　John　of　Paris；　Ockham；



Marsilio　of　Padua；　and　Laurentius　Valla。　Sarpi　ranged　himself



with　the　latter　of　these　forces。　Though　deeply　religious；　he



recognized　the　God…given　right　of　earthly　governments　to



discharge　their　duties　independent　of　church　control。







Among　the　many　centres　of　this　struggle　was　Venice。　She　was



splendidly　religiousas　religion　was　then　understood。　She　was



made　so　by　her　whole　environment。　From　the　beginning　she　had　been



a　seafaring　power；　and　seafaring　men；　from　their　constant　wrestle



with　dangers　ill　understood；　are　prone　to　seek　and　find



supernatural　forces。　Nor　was　this　all。　Later；　when　she　had　become



rich；　powerful；　luxurious；　licentious；　and　refractory　to　the



priesthood；　her　most　powerful　citizens　felt　a　need　of　atoning　for



their　many　sins　by　splendid　religious　foundations。　So　her　people



came　to　live　in　an　atmosphere　of　religious　observance；　and　the



bloom　and　fruitage　of　their　religious　hopes　and　fears　are　seen　in



the　whole　history　of　Venetian　art；from　the　rude　sculptures　of



Torcello　and　the　naive　mosaics　of　San　Marco　to　the　glowing



altarpieces　and　ceilings　of　John　Bellini；　Titian；　and　Tintoretto



and　the　illuminations　of　the　Grimani　Psalter。　No　class　in　Venice



rose　above　this　environment。　Doges　and　Senators　were　as



susceptible　to　it　as　were　the　humblest　fishermen　on　the　Lido。　In



every　one　of　those　glorious　frescoes　in　the　corridors　and　halls



of　the　Ducal　Palace　which　commemorate　the　victories　of　the



Republic；　the　triumphant　Doge　or　Admiral　or　General　is　seen　on



his　knees　making　acknowledgment　of　the　divine　assistance。　On



every　Venetian　sequin；　from　the　days　when　Venice　was　a　power



throughout　the　earth　to　that　fatal　year　when　the　young　Bonaparte



tossed　the　Republic　over　to　the　House　of　Austria；　the　Doge；



crowned　and　robed；　kneels　humbly　before　the　Saviour；　the　Virgin；



or　St。　Mark。　In　that　vast　Hall　of　the　Five　Hundred；　the　most



sumptuous　room　in　the　world；　there　is　spread　above　the　heads　of



the　Doge　and　Senators　and　Councilors；　as　an　incentive　to　the



discharge　of　their　duties　on　earth；　a　representation　of　the



blessed　in　Heaven。







From　highest　to　lowest；　the　Venetians　lived；　moved；　and　had　their



being　in　this　religious　environment；　and；　had　their　Republic　been



loosely　governed；　its　external　policy　would　have　been　largely



swayed　by　this　all…pervading　religious　feeling；　and　would　have



become　the　plaything　of　the　Roman　Court。　But　a　democracy　has



never　been　maintained　save　by　the　delegation　of　great　powers　to



its　chosen　leaders。　It　was　the　remark　of　one　of　the　foremost



American　Democrats　of　the　nineteenth　century；　a　man　who　received



the　highest　honors　which　his　party　could　bestow；　that　the



Constitution　of　the　United　States　was　made；　not　to　promote



Democracy；　but　to　check　it。　This　statement　is　true；　and　it　is　as



true　of　the　Venetian　Constitution　as　of　the　American。＇1＇











＇1＇　See　Horatio　Seymour's　noted　article　in　the　North　American



Review。











But　while　both　the　republics　recognized　the　necessity　of　curbing



Democracy；　the　difference　between　the　means　employed　was



world…wide。　The　founders　of　the　American　Republic　gave　vast



powers　and　responsibilities　to　a　president　and　unheard…of



authority　to　a　supreme　court；　in　the　Venetian　Republic　the　Doge



was　gradually　stripped　of　power；　but　there　was　evolved　the



mysterious　and　unlimited　authority　of　the　Senate　and　Council　of



Ten。







In　these　sat　the　foremost　Venetians；　thoroughly　imbued　with　the



religious　spirit　of　their　time；　but；　religious　as　they　were；　they



were　men　of　the　world；　trained　in　the　polities　of　all　Europe　and



especially　of　Italy。







In　a　striking　passage；　Guizot　has　shown　how　the　Crusaders　who



went　to　the　Orient　by　way　of　Italy　and　saw　the　papacy　near　at



hand　came　back　skeptics。　This　same　influence　shaped　the　statesmen



of　Venice。　The　Venetian　Ambassadors　were　the　foremost　in　Europe。



Their　Relations　are　still　studied　as　the　clearest；　shrewdest；　and



wisest　statements　regarding　the　men　and　events　in　Europe　at　their



time。　All　were　noted　for　skill；　but　the　most　skillful　were　kept



on　duty　at　Rome。　There　was　the　source　of　danger。　The　Doges；



Senators；　and　controlling　Councilors　had；　as　a　rule；　served　in



these　embassies；　and　they　had　formed　lucid　judgments　as　to



Italian　courts　in　general　and　as　to　the　Roman　Court　in



particular。　No　men　had　known　the　Popes　and　the　Curia　more



thoroughly。　They　had　seen　Innocent　VIII。　buy　the　papacy　for



money。　They　had　been　at　the　Vatican　when　Alexander　VI。　had　won



renown　as　a　secret　murderer。　They　had　seen；　close　at　hand；　the



merciless　cruelty　of　Julius　II。　They　had　carefully　noted　the



crimes　of　Sixtus　IV。；　which　culminated　in　the　assassination　of



Julian　de'　Medici　beneath　the　dome　of　Florence　at　the　moment　the



Host　was　uplifted。　They　had　sat　near　Leo　X。　while　he　enjoyed　the



obscenities　of　the　Calandria　and　the　Mandragora；plays　which；　in



the　most　corrupt　of　modern　cities；　would；　in　our　day；　be　stopped



by　the　police。　No　wonder　that；　in　one　of　their　dispatches；　they



speak　of　Rome　as　〃the　cloaca　of　the　world。〃＇1＇











＇1＇　For　Sixtus　IV。　and　his　career；　with　the　tragedy　in　the



Cathedral　of　Florence　see　Villari's　Life　of　Machiavelli；　English



Edition；　vol。　ii。　pp。　341；　342。　For　the　passages　in　the



dispatches　referred　to；　vide　ibid。　vol。　i。　p。　198。











Naturally；　then；　while　their　religion　showed　itself　in　wonderful



monuments　of　every　sort；　their　practical　sense　was　shown　by　a



steady　opposition　to　papal　encroachments。







Of　this　combination　of　zeal　for　religion　with　hostility　to



ecclesiasticism　we　have　striking　examples　throughout　the　history



of　the　Republic。　While；　in　every　other　European　state；　cardinals；



bishops；　priests；　and　monks　were　given　leading　parts　in　civil



administration　and；　in　some　states；　a　monopoly　of　civil　honors；



the　Republic　of　Venice　not　only　excluded　all　ecclesiastics　from



such　posts；　but；　in　cases　which　touched　church　interests；　she



excluded　even　the　relatives　of　ecclesiastics。　When　church



authority　decreed　that　commerce　should　not　be　maintained　with



infidels　and　heretics；　the　Venetian　merchants　continued　to　deal



with　Turks；　Pagans；　Germans；　Englishmen；　and　Dutchmen　as　before。



When　the　Church　decreed　that　the　taking　of　interest　for　money　was



sin；　and　great　theologians　published　in　Venice　some　of　their



mightiest　treatises　demonstrating　this　view　from　Holy　Scripture



and　the　Fathers；　the　Venetians　continued　borrowing　and　lending



money　on　usance。　When　efforts　were　made　to　enforce　that



tremendous　instrument　for　the　consolidation　of　papal　power；　the



bull　In　Coena　Domini；　Venice　evaded　and　even　defied　it。　When　the



Church　frowned　upon　anatomical　dissections；　the　Venetians　allowed



Andreas　Vesalius　to　make　such　dissections　at　their　University　of



Padua。　When　Sixtus　V。；　the　strongest　of　all　the　Popes；　had



brought　all　his　powers；　temporal　and　spiritual；　to　bear　against



Henry　IV。　of　France　as　an　excommunicated　heretic；　and　seemed



ready　to　hurl　the　thunderbolts　of　the　Church　against　any　power



which　should　recognize　him；　the　Venetian　Republic　not　only



recognized　him；　but　treated　his　Ambassador　with　especial



courtesy。　When　the　other　Catholic　powers；　save　France；　yielded　to



papal　mandates　and　sent　no　representatives　to　the　coronation　of



James　I。　of　England；　Venice　was　there　represented。　When　Pope



after　Pope　issued　endless　diatribes　against　the　horrors　of



toleration；　the　Venetians　steadily　tolerated　in　their　several



sorts　of　worship　Jews　and　Greeks；　Mohammedans　and　Armenians；　with



Protestants　of　every　sort　who　came　to　them　on　business。　When　the



Roman　Index　forbade　the　publication　of　most　important　works　of



leading　authors；　Venice　demanded　and　obtained　for　her　printers



rights　which　were　elsewhere　denied。







As　to　the　religious　restrictions　which　touched　trade；　the



Venetians　in　the　public　councils；　and　indeed　the　people　at　large；



had　come　to　know　perfectly　what　the　papal　theory　meant；with



some　of　its　promoters；　fanaticism；　but　with　the　controlling　power



at　Rome；　revenue；　revenue　to　be　derived　from　retailing



dispensations　to　infringe　the　holy　rules。







This　peculiar　antithesisnowhere　more　striking　than　at　Venice；



on　the　one　side；　religious　fears　and　hopes；　on　the　other；　keen



insight　into　the　ways　of　ecclesiasticismled　to　peculiar



compromises。　The　bankers　who　had　taken　interest　upon　money；　the



merchants　who　had　traded　with　Moslems　and　heretics；　in　their　last



hours　frequently　thought　it　best　to　perfect　their　title　to



salvation　by　turning　over　large　estates　to　the　Church。　Under　the



sway　of　this　feeling；　and　especially　of　the　terrors　infused　by



priests　at　deathbeds；　mortmain　had　become　in　Venice；　as　in　many



other　parts　of　the　world；　one　of　the　most　serious　of　evils。　Thus



it　was　that　the　clergy　came　to　possess　between　one　fourth　and　one



third　of　the　whole　territory　of　the　Republic；　and　in　its　Bergamo



district　more　than　one　half；　and　all　this　was　exempt　from



taxation。　Hence　it　was　that　the　Venetian　Senate　found　it



necessary　to　devise　a　legal　cheek　which　should　make　such



absorption　of　estates　by　the