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evolution and ethics and other essays-第15部分

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completed; that is now for ever beyond the soul's control。 There is
even no continuing consciousness; no memory of the past that could
guide the soul to any knowledge of its fate。  The only advantage open
to it is to add in this life to the sum of its good actions; that it
may bear fruit with the rest。 And even this can only happen in some
future life under essentially them same conditions as the present one:
subject; like the present one; to old age; decay; and death; and
affording opportunity; like the present one; for the commission of
errors; ignorances; or sins; which in their turn must inevitably
produce their due effect of sickness; disability; or woe。 Thus is the
soul tossed about from life to life; from billow to billow in the
great ocean of transmigration。  And there is no escape save for the
very few; who; during their birth as men; attain to a right knowledge
of the Great Spirit: and thus enter into immortality; or; as the later
'94' philosophers taught; are absorbed into the Divine Essence。〃 (Rhys
Davids; Hibbert Lectures; pp。 85; 86。)

The state after death thus imagined by the Hindu philosophers has a
certain analogy to the purgatory of the Roman Church; except that
escape from it is dependent; not on a divine decree modified; it may
be; by sacerdotal or saintly intercession; but by the acts of the
individual himself; and that while ultimate emergence into heavenly
bliss of the good; or well…prayed for; Catholic is professedly
assured; the chances in favour of the attainment of absorption; or of
Nirvana; by any individual Hindu are extremely small。

Note 6 (P。 62)。

〃That part of the then prevalent transmigration theory which could not
be proved false seemed to meet a deeply felt necessity; seemed to
supply a moral cause which would explain the unequal distribution here
of happiness or woe; so utterly inconsistent with the present
characters of men。〃 Gautama 〃still therefore talked of men's previous
existence; but by no means in the way that he is generally represented
to have done。〃 What he taught was 〃the transmigration of character。〃
He held that after the death of any being; whether human or not; there
survived nothing at all but that being's 〃Karma;〃 the result; that is;
of its mental and bodily actions。 Every individual; whether human or
divine; was the last inheritor and the last result of the Karma of a
long series of past individuals〃a series '95' so long that its
beginning is beyond the reach of calculation; and its end will be
coincident with the destruction of the world。〃 (Rhys Davids; Hibbert
Lectures; p。 92。)

In the theory of evolution; the tendency of a germ to develop according
to a certain specific type; e。g。 of the kidney bean seed to grow into
a plant having all the characters of Phaseolus vulgaris; is its
〃Karma。〃 It is the 〃last inheritor and the last result〃 of all the
conditions that have affected a line of ancestry which goes back for
many millions of years to the time when life first appeared on the
earth。 The moiety B of the substance of the bean plant (see Note 1) is
the last link in a once continuous chain extending from the primitive
living substance: and the characters of the successive species to
which it has given rise are the manifestations of its gradually
modified Karma。 As Prof。 Rhys Davids aptly says; the snowdrop 〃is a
snowdrop and not an oak; and just that kind of snowdrop; because it is
the outcome of the Karma of an endless series of past existences。〃
(Hibbert Lectures; p。 114。)

Note 7 (p。 64)。

〃It is interesting to notice that the very point which is the weakness
of the theorythe supposed concentration of the effect of the Karma
in one new beingpresented itself to the early Buddhists themselves
as a difficulty。  They avoided it; partly by explaining that it was a
particular thirst in the creature dying (a craving; Tanha; which plays
other '96' wise a great part in the Buddhist theory) which actually
caused the birth of the new individual who was to inherit the Karma of
the former one。 But; how this too place; how the craving desire
produced this effect; was acknowledged to be a mystery patent only to
a Buddha。〃 (Rhys Davids; Hibbert Lectures; P。 95。)

Among the many parallelisms of Stoicism and Buddhism; it is curious to
find one for this Tanha; 〃thirst;〃 or 〃craving desire〃 for life。
Seneca writes (Epist。 lxxvi。 18): 〃Si enim ullum aliud est bonum quam
honestum; sequetur nos aviditas vitae aviditas rerum vitam
instruentium: quod est intolerabile infinitum; vagum。〃

Note 8 (P。 66)。

〃The distinguishing characteristic of Buddhism was that it started a
new line; that it looked upon the deepest questions men have to solve
from an entirely different standpoint。 It swept away from the field of
its vision the whole of the great soul theory which had hitherto so
completely filled and dominated the minds of the superstitious and the
thoughtful alike。 For the first time in the history of the world; it
proclaimed a salvation which each man could gain for himself and by
himself; in this world; during this life; without any the least
reference to God; or to Gods; either great or small。 Like the
Upanishads; it placed the first importance on knowledge; but it was no
longer a knowledge of God; it was a clear perception of the real
nature; as '97' they supposed it to be; of men and things。 And it added
to the necessity of knowledge; the necessity of purity; of courtesy;
of uprightness; of peace and of a universal love far reaching; grown
great and beyond measure。〃 (Rhys Davids; Hibbert Lectures; p。 29。)

The contemporary Greek philosophy takes an analogous direction。
According to Heracleitus; the universe was made neither by Gods nor
men; but; from all eternity; has been; and to all eternity; will be;
immortal fire; glowing and fading in due measure。 (Mullach; Heracliti
Fragmenta; 27。) And the part assigned by his successors; the Stoics;
to the knowledge and the volition of the 〃wise man〃 made their
Divinity (for logical thinkers) a subject for compliments; rather than
a power to be reckoned with。 In Hindu speculation the 〃Arahat;〃 still
more the 〃Buddha;〃 becomes the superior of Brahma; the stoical 〃wise
man〃 is; at least; the equal of Zeus。

Berkeley affirms over and over again that no idea can be formed of a
soul or spirit〃If any man shall doubt of the truth of what is here
delivered; let him but reflect and try if he can form any idea of
power or active being; and whether he hath ideas of two principal
powers marked by the names of will and understanding distinct from
each other; as well as from a third idea of substance or being in
general; with a relative notion of its supporting or being the subject
of the aforesaid power; which is signified by the name soul or spirit。
This is what some hold but; so far as I can see; the words will; soul;
spirit; do not stand for different ideas or; in truth; for any idea at
all; but for something which is very different from ideas; and which;
being an agent; cannot be like unto or represented by Any idea
whatever 'though it must be owned at the same time; that we have some
notion of soul; spirit; and the operations of the mind; such as
willing; loving; hating; inasmuch as we know or understand the meaning
of these words〃。 (The Principles of Human Knowledge; lxxvi。 See also
sections lxxxix。; cxxxv。; cxlv。)

It is open to discussion; I think; whether it is possible to have
〃some notion〃 of that of which we can form no 〃idea。〃

Berkeley attaches several predicates to the 〃perceiving active being
mind; spirit; soul or myself〃 (Parts I。 II。) It is said; for example;
to be 〃indivisible; incorporeal; unextended; and incorruptible。〃 The
predicate indivisible; though negative in form; has highly positive
consequences。 For; if 〃perceiving active being〃 is strictly
indivisible; man's soul must be one with the Divine spirit: which is
good Hindu or Stoical doctrine; but hardly orthodox Christian
philosophy。 If; on the other hand; the 〃substance〃 of active
perceiving 〃being〃 is actually divided into the one Divine and
innumerable human entities; how can the predicate 〃indivisible〃 be
rigorously applicable to it?

Taking the words cited; as they stand; the amount to the denial of the
possibility of any knowledge of substance。 〃Matter〃 having been
resolved into mere affections of 〃spirit〃; 〃spirit〃 melts away into an
admittedly inconceivable and unknowable '99' hypostasis of thought and
powerconsequently the existence of anything in the universe beyond a
flow of phenomena is a purely hypothetical assumption。 Indeed a
pyrrhonist might raise the objection that if 〃esse〃 is 〃percipi〃
spirit itself can have no existence except as a perception;
hypostatized into a 〃self;〃 or as a perception of some other spirit。
In the former case; objective reality vanishes; in the latter; there
would seem to be the need of an infinite series of spirits each
perceiving the others。

It is curious to observe how very closely the phraseology of Berkeley
sometimes approaches that of the Stoics: thus (cxlviii。) 〃It seems to
be a general pretence of the unthinking herd that they cannot see God。
。 。 But; alas; we need only open our eyes to see the Sovereign Lord of
all things with a more full and clear view; than we do any of our
fellow…creatures 。 。  。 we do at all times and in all places perceive
manifest tokens of the Divinity: everything we see; hear; feel; or any
wise perceive by sense; being a sign or effect of the power of God〃 。
。 。 cxlix。 〃It is therefore plain; that nothing can be more evident to
any one that is capable of the least reflection; than the existence of
God; or a spirit who is intimately present to our minds; producing in
them all that variety of ideas or sensations which continually affect
us; on whom we have an absolute and entire dependence; in short; in
whom we live and move and have our being。〃 cl。 〃'But you will say hath
Nature no share in the production of natural things; and must they all
be ascribed to the immediate and sole operation of God? 。。。 if by
Nature is '100' meant some being distinct from God; as well as from
the laws of nature and things perceived by sense; I must confess that
word is to me 
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