evolution and ethics and other essays-第17部分

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Egypt。

But　the　manner　of　that　indebtedness　is　very　instructive。　The　obligation
is　clear；　but　its　limits　are　no　less　definite。　Nothing　better
exemplifies　the　indomitable　originality　of　the　Greeks　than　the
relations　of　their　art　to　that　of　the　Orientals。　Far　from　being
subdued　into　mere　imitators　by　the　technical　excellence　of　their
teachers；　they　lost　no　time　in　bettering　the　instruction　they
received；　using　their　models　as　mere　stepping　stones　on　the　way　to
those　unsurpassed　and　unsurpassable　achievements　which　are　all　their
own。　The　shibboleth　of　Art　is　＇107＇　the　human　figure。　The　ancient
Chaldaeans　and　Egyptians；　like　the　modern　Japanese；　did　wonders　in　the
representation　of　birds　and　quadrupeds；　they　even　attained　to
something　more　than　respectability　in　human　portraiture。　But　their
utmost　efforts　never　brought　them　within　range　of　the　best　Greek
embodiments　of　the　grace　of　womanhood；　or　of　the　severer　beauty　of
manhood。

It　is　worth　while　to　consider　the　probable　effect　upon　the　acute　and
critical　Greek　mind　of　the　conflict　of　ideas；　social；　political；　and
theological；　which　arose　out　of　the　conditions　of　life　in　the　Asiatic
colonies。　The　Ionian　polities　had　passed　through　the　whole　gamut　of
social　and　political　changes；　from　patriarchal　and　occasionally
oppressive　kingship　to　rowdy　and　still　more　burdensome　mobshipno
doubt　with　infinitely　eloquent　and　copious　argumentation；　on　both
sides；　at　every　stage　of　their　progress　towards　that　arbitrament　of
force　which　settles　most　political　questions。　The　marvellous
speculative　faculty；　latent　in　the　Ionian；　had　come　in　contact　with
Mesopotamian；　Egyptian；　Phoenician　theologies　and　cosmogonies；　with
the　illuminati　of　Orphism　and　the　fanatics　and　dreamers　of　the
Mysteries；　possibly　with　Buddhism　and　Zoroasterism；　possibly　even　with
Judaism。　And　it　has　been　observed　that　the　mutual　contradictions　of
antagonistic　supernaturalisms　are　apt　to　play　a　large　part　among　the
generative　agencies　of　naturalism。

Thus；　various　external　influences　may　have　contributed　to　the　rise　of
philosophy　among　the　Ionian　Greeks　of　the　sixth　century。　But　the
assimilative　＇108＇　capacity　of　the　Greek　mindits　power　of
Hellenizing　whatever　it　touchedhas　here　worked　so　effectually；　that；
so　far　as　I　can　learn；　no　indubitable　traces　of　such　extraneous
contributions　are　now　allowed　to　exist　by　the　most　authoritative
historians　of　Philosophy。　　Nevertheless；　I　think　it　must　be　admitted
that　the　coincidences　between　the　Heracleito…stoical　doctrines　and
those　of　the　older　Hindu　philosophy　are　extremely　remarkable。　In　both；
the　cosmos　pursues　an　eternal　succession　of　cyclical　changes。　The
great　year；　answering　to　the　Kalpa；　covers　an　entire　cycle　from　the
origin　of　the　universe　as　a　fluid　to　its　dissolution　in　fire〃Humor
initium；　ignis　exitus　mundi；〃　as　Seneca　has　it。　In　both　systems；　there
is　immanent　in　the　cosmos　a　source　of　energy；　Brahma；　or　the　Logos；
which　works　according　to　fixed　laws。　The　individual　soul　is　an　efflux
of　this　world…spirit；　and　returns　to　it。　Perfection　is　attainable　only
by　individual　effort；　through　ascetic　discipline；　and　is　rather　a
state　of　painlessness　than　of　happiness；　if　indeed　it　can　be　said　to
be　a　state　of　anything；　save　the　negation　of　perturbing　emotion。　The
hatchment　motto　〃In　Coelo　Quies〃　would　serve　both　Hindu　and　Stoic；　and
absolute　quiet　is　not　easily　distinguishable　from　annihilation。

Zoroasterism；　which；　geographically；　occupies　a　position　intermediate
between　Hellenism　and　Hinduism；　agrees　with　the　latter　in　recognizing
the　essential　evil　of　the　cosmos；　but　differs　from　both　in　its
intensely　anthropomorphic　personification　of　the　two　antagonistic
principles；　to　the　one　of　which　it　ascribes　all　the　good；　and；　to　the
other；　all　the　evil。

＇109＇　In　fact；　it　assumes　the　existence　of　two　worlds；　one　good　and　one
bad；　the　latter　created　by　the　evil　power　for　the　purpose　of　damaging
the　former。　　The　existing　cosmos　is　a　mere　mixture　of　the　two；　and　the
〃last　judgment〃　is　a　root…and…branch　extirpation　of　the　work　of
Ahriman。

Note　12　（p。　69）。

There　is　no　snare　in　which　the　feet　of　a　modern　student　of　ancient　lore
are　more　easily　entangled；　than　that　which　is　spread　by　the　similarity
of　the　language　of　antiquity　to　modern　modes　of　expression。　I　do　not
presume　to　interpret　the　obscurest　of　Greek　philosophers；　all　I　wish
is　to　point　out；　that　his　words；　in　the　sense　accepted　by　competent
interpreters；　fit　modern　ideas　singularly　well。

So　far　as　the　general　theory　of　evolution　goes　there　is　no　difficulty。
The　aphorism　about　the　river；　the　figure　of　the　child　playing　on　the
shore；　the　kingship　and　fatherhood　of　strife；　seem　decisive。　The
＇Greek　phrase　osod　ano　kato　mie＇　expresses；　with　singular　aptness；　the
cyclical　aspect　of　the　one　process　of　organic　evolution　in　individual
plants　and　animals：　yet　it　may　be　a　question　whether　the　Heracleitean
strife　included　any　distinct　conception　of　the　struggle　for　existence。
Again；　it　is　tempting　to　compare　the　part　played　by　the　Heracleitean
〃fire〃　with　that　ascribed　by　the　moderns　to　heat；　or　rather　to　that
cause　of　motion　of　which　heat　is　one　expression；　and　a　little
ingenuity　might　find　a　foreshadowing　of　the　doctrine　of　the
conservation　of　energy；　in　the　saying　＇110＇　that　all　the　things　are
changed　into　fire　and　fire　into　all　things；　as　gold　into　goods　and
goods　into　gold。

Note　13　（p。　71）。

Pope's　lines　in　the　Essay　on　Man（Ep。　i。　267…8）；

　　　　　All　are　but　parts　of　one　stupendous　whole；
　　　　　Whose　body　Nature　is；　and　God　the　soul；〃

simply　paraphrase　Seneca's　〃quem　in　hoc　mundo　locum　deus　obtinet；　hunc
in　homine　animus：　quod　est　illic　materia；　id　nobis　corpus　est。〃（Ep。
lxv。　24）；　which　again　is　a　Latin　version　of　the　old　Stoical　doctrine；
＇Greek　phrase　eis　apan　tou　kosou　meros　diekei　o　nous；　kataper　aph　emon
e　psuche＇。

So　far　as　the　testimony　for　the　universality　of　what　ordinary　people
call　〃evil〃　goes；　there　is　nothing　better　than　the　writings　of　the
Stoics　themselves。　They　might　serve；　as　a　storehouse　for　the　epigrams
of　the　ultra…pessimists。　Heracleitus　（circa　500　B。C。）　says　just　as
hard　things　about　ordinary　humanity　as　his　disciples　centuries　later；
and　there　really　seems　no　need　to　seek　for　the　causes　of　this　dark
view　of　life　in　the　circumstances　of　the　time　of　Alexander's
successors　or　of　the　early　Emperors　of　Rome。　To　the　man　with　an
ethical　ideal；　the　world；　including　himself；　will　always　seem　full　of
evil。

Note　14　（P。　73）。

I　use　the　well…known　phrase；　but　decline　responsibility　for　the　libel
upon　Epicurus；　whose　doctrines　＇111＇　were　far　less　compatible　with
existence　in　a　style　than　those　of　the　Cynics。　If　it　were　steadily
borne　in　mind　that　the　conception　of　the　〃flesh〃　as　the　source　of
evil；　and　the　great　saying　〃Initium　est　salutis　notitia　peccati；〃　are
the　property　of　Epicurus；　fewer　illusions　about　Epicureanism　would
pass　muster　for　accepted　truth。

Note　15　（P。　75）。

The　Stoics　said　that　man　was　a　＇Greek　phrase　zoon　logikon　politikon
philallelon＇；　or　a　rational；　a　political；　and　an　altruistic　or
philanthropic　animal。　In　their　view；　his　higher　nature　tended　to
develop　in　these　three　directions；　as　a　plant　tends　to　grow　up　into
its　typical　form。　Since；　without　the　introduction　of　any　consideration
of　pleasure　or　pain；　whatever　thwarted　the　realization　of　its　type　by
the　plant　might　be　said　to　be　bad；　and　whatever　helped　it　good；　so
virtue；　in　the　Stoical　sense；　as　the　conduct　which　tended　to　the
attainment　of　the　rational；　political；　and　philanthropic　ideal；　was
good　in　itself；　and　irrespectively　of　its　emotional　concomitants。

Man　is　an　〃animal　sociale　communi　bono　genitum。〃　The　safety　of　society
depends　upon　practical　recognition　of　the　fact。　〃Salva　autem　esse
societas　nisi　custodia　et　amore　partium　non　possit；〃　says　Seneca。　（De。
Ira；　ii。　31。）

Note　16　（P。　75）。

The　importance　of　the　physical　doctrine　of　the　Stoics　lies　in　its
clear　recognition　of　the　universality　＇112＇　of　the　law　of　causation；
with　its　corollary；　the　order　of　nature：　the　exact　form　of　that　order
is　an　altogether　secondary　consideration。

Many　ingenious　persons　now　appear　to　consider　that　the　incompatibility
of　pantheism；　of　materialism；　and　of　any　doubt　about　the　immortality
oxf　the　soul；　with　religion　and　morality；　is　to　be　held　as　an
axiomatic　truth。　I　confess　that　I　have　a　certain　difficulty　in
accepting　this　dogma。　For　the　Stoics　were　notoriously　materialists　and
pantheists　of　the　most　extreme　character；　and　while　no　strict　Stoic
believed　in　the　eternal　duration　of　the　individual　soul；　some　even
denied　its　persistence　after　death。　Yet　it　is　equally　certain　that　of
all　gentile　philosophies；　Stoicism　exhibits　the　highest　ethical
development；　is　animated　by　the　most　religious　spirit；　and　has　exerted
the　profoundest　influence　upon　the　moral　and　religious　development　not
merely　of　the　best　men　among　the　Romans；　but　among　the　moderns　down　to
our　own　day。

Seneca　was　claimed　as　a　Christian　and　placed　among　the　saints　by　the
fathers　of　the　early　Christian　Church；　and　the　genuineness　of　a
correspondence　between　him　and　the　apostle　Paul　has　been　hotly
maintained　in　our　own　time；　by　orthodox　writers。　That　the　letters；　as
we　possess　them；　are　worthless　forgeries　is　obvious；　and　writers　as
wide　apart　as　Baur　and　Lightfoot　agree　that　the　whole　story　is　devoid
of　foundation。

The　dissertation　of　the　late　Bishop　of　Durham　（Epistle　to　the
Philippians）　is　particularly　worthy　of　study；　apart　from　this
question；　on　account　of　＇113＇　evidence　which　it　supplies　of　the
numerous　similarities　of　thought　between　Seneca　and　the　writer　of　the
Pauline　epistles。　When　it　is　remembered　that　the　writer　of　the　Acts
puts　a　quotation　from　Aratus；　or　Cleanthes；　into　the　mouth　of　the
apostle；　and　that　Tarsus　was　a　great　seat　of　philosophical　and
especially　stoical　learning　（Chrysippus　himself　was　a　native　of　the
adjacent　town　of　Soli）；　there　is　no　difficulty　in　understanding　the
origin　of　these　resemblances。　See；　on　this　subject；　Sir　Alexander
Grant's　dissertation　in　his　edition　of　The　Ethics　of　Aristotle　（where
there　is　an　interesting　reference　to　the　stoical　character　of　Bishop
Butler's　ethics）；　the　concluding　page