evolution and ethics and other essays-第18部分

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there　is　an　interesting　reference　to　the　stoical　character　of　Bishop
Butler's　ethics）；　the　concluding　pages　of　Dr。　Weygoldt's　instructive
little　work　Die　Philosophie　der　Stoa；　and　Aubertin's　Seneque　et　Saint
Paul。

It　is　surprising　that　a　writer　of　Dr。　Lightfoot's　stamp　should　speak
of　Stoicism　as　a　philosophy　of　〃despair。〃　Surely；　rather；　it　was　a
philosophy　of　men　who；　having　cast　off　all　illusions；　and　the
childishness　of　despair　among　them；　were　minded　to　endure　in　patience
whatever　conditions　the　cosmic　process　might　create；　so　long　as　those
conditions　were　compatible　with　the　progress　towards　virtue；　which
alone；　for　them；　conferred　a　worthy　object　on　existence。　There　is　no
note　of　despair　in　the　stoical　declaration　that　the　perfected　〃wise
man〃　is　the　equal　of　Zeus　in　everything　but　the　duration　of　his
existence。　And；　in　my　judgment；　there　is　as　little　pride　about　it；
often　as　it　serves　for　the　text　of　discourses　on　stoical　arrogance。
Grant　the　stoical　postulate　that　there　is　no　good　except　virtue；　grant
that　＇114＇　the　perfected　wise　man　is　altogether　virtuous；　in
consequence　of　being　guided　in　all　things　by　the　reason；　which　is　an
effluence　of　Zeus；　and　there　seems　no　escape　from　the　stoical
conclusion。

Note　17　（p。　76）。

Our　〃Apathy〃　carries　such　a　different　set　of　connotations　from　its
Greek　original　that　I　have　ventured　on　using　the　latter　as　a　technical
term。

Note　18　（P。　77）。

Many　of　the　stoical　philosophers　recommended　their　disciples　to　take
an　active　share　in　public　affairs；　and　in　the　Roman　world；　for　several
centuries；　the　best　public　men　were　strongly　inclined　to　Stoicism。
Nevertheless；　the　logical　tendency　of　Stoicism　seems　to　me　to　be
fulfilled　only　in　such　men　as　Diogenes　and　Epictetus。

Note　19　（P。　80）。

〃Criticisms　on　the　Origin　of　Species；〃　1864。　Collected　Essays；　vol。　ii。
p。　　91。＇1894。＇

Note　20　（P。　81）。

Of　course；　strictly　speaking；　social　life；　and　the　ethical　process　in
virtue　of　which　it　advances　towards　perfection；　Are　part　and　parcel　of
the　general　process　of　evolution；　just　as　the　gregarious　habit　of　in
＇115＇　numerable　plants　and　animals；　which　has　been　of　immense
advantage　to　them；　is　so。　A　hive　of　bees　is　an　organic　polity；　a
society　in　which　the　part　played　by　each　member　is　determined　by
organic　necessities。　Queens；　workers；　and　drones　are；　so　to　speak；
castes；　divided　from　one　another　by　marked　physical　barriers。　Among
birds　and　mammals；　societies　are　formed；　of　which　the　bond　in　many
cases　seems　to　be　purely　psychological；　that　is　to　say；　it　appears　to
depend　upon　the　liking　of　the　individuals　for　one　another's　company。
The　tendency　of　individuals　to　over　self…assertion　is　kept　down　by
fighting。　　Even　in　these　rudimentary　forms　of　society；　love　and　fear
come　into　play；　and　enforce　a　greater　or　less　renunciation　of
self…will。　To　this　extent　the　general　cosmic　process　begins　to　be
checked　by　a　rudimentary　ethical　process；　which　is；　strictly　speaking；
part　of　the　former；　just　as　the　〃governor〃　in　a　steam…engine　is　part
of　the　mechanism　of　the　engine。

Note　21　（p。　82）。

See　〃Government：　Anarchy　or　Regimentation；〃　Collected　Essays；　vol。　i。
pp。　　413…418。　It　is　this　form　of　political　philosophy　to　which　I
conceive　the　epithet　of　〃reasoned　savagery〃　to　be　strictly
applicable。＇1894。＇

Note　22　（p。　83）。

〃L'homme　n'est　qu'un　roseau；　le　plus　faible　de　la　nature；　mais　c'est
un　roseau　pensant。　Il　ne　faut　＇116＇　pas　que　l'univers　entier　s'arme
pour　l'ecraser。　Une　vapour；　une　goutte　d'eau；　suffit　pour　le　tuer。
Mais　quand　l'univers　l'ecraserait；　l'homme　serait　encore　plus　noble
que　ce　qui　le　tue；　parce　qu'il　sait　qu'il　muert；　et　l'avantage　que
l'univers　a　sur　lui；　l'univers　n'en　sait　rien。〃Pensees　de　Pascal。

Note　23　（p。　85）。

The　use　of　the　word　〃Nature〃　here　may　be　criticised。　Yet　the
manifestation　of　the　natural　tendencies　of　men　is　so　profoundly
modified　by　training　that　it　is　hardly　too　strong。　Consider　the
suppression　of　the　sexual　instinct　between　near　relations。

Note　24　（p。　86）。

A　great　proportion　of　poetry　is　addressed　by　the　young　to　the　young；
only　the　great　masters　of　the　art　are　capable　of　divining；　or　think　it
worth　while　to　enter　into；　the　feelings　of　retrospective　age。　The　two
great　poets　whom　we　have　so　lately　lost；　Tennyson　and　Browning；　have
done　this；　each　in　his　own　inimitable　way；　the　one　in　the　Ulysses；
from　which　I　have　borrowed；　the　other　in　that　wonderful　fragment
〃Childe　Roland　to　the　dark　Tower　came。〃

＇147＇


　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　IV。

　　　　　　　CAPITALTHE　MOTHER　OF　LABOUR

　　　　AN　ECONOMICAL　PROBLEM　DISCUSSED　FROM　A
　　　　　　　　PHYSIOLOGICAL　POINT　OF　VIEW

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　＇1890。＇

THE　first　act　of　a　new…born　child　is　to　draw　a　deep　breath。　In　fact；　it
will　never　draw　a　deeper；　inasmuch　as　the　passages　and　chambers　of　the
lungs；　once　distended　with　air；　do　not　empty　themselves　again；　it　is
only　a　fraction　of　their　contents　which　passes　in　and　out　with　the
flow　and　the　ebb　of　the　respiratory　tide。　Mechanically；　this　act　of
drawing　breath；　or　inspiration；　is　of　the　same　nature　as　that　by　which
the　handles　of　a　bellows　are　separated；　in　order　to　fill　the　bellows
with　air；　and；　in　like　manner；　it　involves　that　expenditure　of　energy
which　we　call　exertion；　or　work；　or　labour。　It　is；　therefore；　no　mere
metaphor　to　say　that　man　is　destined　to　a　life　of　toil：　the　work　of
respiration　which　began　with　his　first　breath　ends　only　with　his　last；
nor　does　one　born　in　the　purple　get　off　with　a　lighter　task　than　the
child　who　first　sees　light　under　a　hedge。

＇148＇　How　is　it　that　the　new…born　infant　is　enabled　to　perform　this
first　instalment　of　the　sentence　of　life…long　labour　which　no　man　may
escape？　　Whatever　else　a　child　may　be；　in　respect　of　this　particular
question；　it　is　a　complicated　piece　of　mechanism；　built　up　out　of
materials　supplied　by　its　mother；　and　in　the　course　of　such
building…up；　provided　with　a　set　of　motorsthe　muscles。　Each　of　these
muscles　contains　a　stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　under
certain　conditions；　one　of　which　is　a　change　of　state　in　the　nerve
fibres　connected　with　it。　The　powder　in　a　loaded　gun　is　such　another
stock　of　substance　capable　of　yielding　energy　in　consequence　of　a
change　of　state　in　the　mechanism　of　the　lock；　which　intervenes　between
the　finger　of　the　man　who　pulls　the　trigger　and　the　cartridge。　If　that
change　is　brought　about；　the　potential　energy　of　the　powder　passes
suddenly　into　actual　energy；　and　does　the　work　of　propelling　the
bullet。　The　powder；　therefore；　may　be　appropriately　called　work…stuff；
not　only　because　it　is　stuff　which　is　easily　made　to　yield　work　in　the
physical　sense；　but　because　a　good　deal　of　work　in　the　economical　sense
has　contributed　to　its　production。　Labour　was　necessary　to　collect；
transport；　and　purify　the　raw　sulphur　and　saltpetre；　to　cut　wood　and
convert　it　into　powdered　charcoal；　to　mix　these　ingredients　in　the
right　proportions；　to　give　the　mixture　the　proper　grain；　and　so　on。
The　powder　＇149＇　once　formed　part　of　the　stock；　or　capital；　of　a
powder…maker：　and　it　is　not　only　certain　natural　bodies　which　are
collected　and　stored　in　the　gunpowder；　but　the　labour　bestowed　on　the
operations　mentioned　may　be　figuratively　said　to　be　incorporated　in
it。

In　principle；　the　work…stuff　stored　in　the　muscles　of　the　new…born
child　is　comparable　to　that　stored　in　the　gun…barrel。　The　infant　is
launched　into　altogether　new　surroundings；　and　these　operate　through
the　mechanism　of　the　nervous　machinery；　with　the　result　that　the
potential　energy　of　some　of　the　work…stuff　in　the　muscles　which　bring
about　inspiration　is　suddenly　converted　into　actual　energy；　and　this；
operating　through　the　mechanism　of　the　respiratory　apparatus；　gives
rise　to　an　act　of　inspiration。　As　the　bullet　is　propelled　by　the
〃going　off〃　of　the　powder；　as　it　might　be　said　that　the　ribs　are
raised　and　the　midriff　depressed　by　the　〃going　off〃　of　certain
portions　of　muscular　work…stuff。　This　work…stuff　is　part　of　a　stock　or
capital　of　that　commodity　stored　up　in　the　child's　organism　before
birth；　at　the　expense　of　the　mother；　and　the　mother　has　made　good　her
expenditure　by　drawing　upon　the　capital　of　food…stuffs　which　furnished
her　daily　maintenance。

Under　these　circumstances；　it　does　not　appear　to　me　to　be　open　to　doubt
that　the　primary　act　of　outward　labour　in　the　series　which　necessarily
accompany　＇150＇　the　life　of　man　is　dependent　upon　the　pre…existence　of
a　stock　of　material　which　is　not　only　of　use　to　him；　but　which　is
disposed　in　such　a　manner　as　to　be　utilisable　with　facility。　And　I
further　imagine　that　the　propriety　of　the　application　of　the　term
'capital'　to　this　stock　of　useful　substance　cannot　be　justly　called　in
question；　inasmuch　as　it　is　easy　to　prove　that　the　essential
constituents　of　the　work…stuff　accumulated　in　the　child's　muscles　have
merely　been　transferred　from　the　store　of　food…stuffs；　which　everybody
admits　to　be　capital；　by　means　of　the　maternal　organism　to　that　of　the
child；　in　which　they　are　again　deposited　to　await　use。　Every
subsequent　act　of　labour；　in　like　manner；　involves　an　equivalent
consumption　of　the　child's　store　of　work…stuffits　vital　capital；　and
one　of　the　main　objects　of　the　process　of　breathing　is　to　get　rid　of
some　of　the　effects　of　that　consumption。　It　follows；　then；　that；　even
if　no　other　than　the　respiratory　work　were　going　on　in　the　organism；
the　capital　of　work…stuff；　which　the　child　brought　with　it　into　the
world；　must　sooner　or　later　be　used　up；　and　the　movements　of　breathing
must　come　to　an　end；　just　as　the　see…saw　of　the　piston　of　a
steam…engine　stops　when　the　coal　in　the　fireplace　has　burnt　away。

Milk；　however；　is　a　stock　of　materials　which　essentially　consists　of
savings　from　the　food…stuffs　supplied　to　the　mother。　And　these　savings
are　＇151＇　in　such　a　physical　and　chemical　condition　that　the　organism
of　the　child　can　easily　convert　them　into　work…stuff。　That　is　to　say；
by　borrowing　directly　from　the　vital　capital　of　the　mother；　indirectly
from　the　store　in　the　natural　bodies　accessible　to　her；　it　can　make
good　the　loss　of　its　own。　The　operation　of　borrowing；　however；
involves　further　work；　that　is；　the　labour　of　sucking；　which　is　a
me