evolution and ethics and other essays-第19部分

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good　the　loss　of　its　own。　The　operation　of　borrowing；　however；
involves　further　work；　that　is；　the　labour　of　sucking；　which　is　a
mechanical　operation　of　much　the　same　nature　as　breathing。　The　child
thus　pays　for　the　capital　it　borrows　in　labour；　but　as　the　value　in
work…stuff　of　the　milk　obtained　is　very　far　greater　than　the　value　of
that　labour；　estimated　by　the　consumption　of　work…stuff　it　involves；
the　operation　yields　a　large　profit　to　the　infant。　The　overplus　of
food…stuff　suffices　to　increase　the　child's　capital　of　work…stuff；　and
to　supply　not　only　the　materials　for　the　enlargement　of　the　〃buildings
and　machinery〃　which　is　expressed　by　the　child's　growth；　but　also　the
energy　required　to　put　all　these　materials　together；　and　to　carry　them
to　their　proper　places。　Thus；　throughout　the　years　of　infancy；　and　so
long　thereafter　as　the　youth　or　man　is　not　thrown　upon　his　own
resources；　he　lives　by　consuming　the　vital　capital　provided　by　others。
To　use　a　terminology　which　is　more　common　than　appropriate；　whatever
work　he　performs　（and　he　does　a　good　deal；　if　only　in　mere　locomotion）
is　unproductive。

＇152＇　Let　us　now　suppose　the　child　come　to　man's　estate　in　the
condition　of　a　wandering　savage；　dependent　for　his　food　upon　what　he
can　pick　up　or　catch；　after　the　fashion　of　the　Australian　aborigines。
It　is　plain　that　the　place　of　mother；　as　the　supplier　of　vital
capital；　is　now　taken　by　the　fruits；　seeds；　and　roots　of　plants　and　by
various　kinds　of　animals。　It　is　they　alone　which　contain　stocks　of
those　substances　which　can　be　converted　within　the　man's　organism　into
work…stuff；　and　of　the　other　matters；　except　air　and　water；　required
to　supply　the　constant　consumption　of　his　capital　and　to　keep　his
organic　machinery　going。　In　no　way　does　the　savage　contribute　to　the
production　of　these　substances。　Whatever　labour　he　bestows　upon　such
vegetable　and　animal　bodies；　on　the　contrary；　is　devoted　to　their
destruction；　and　it　is　a　mere　matter　of　accident　whether　a　little
labour　yields　him　a　great　dealas　in　the　case；　for　example；　of　a
stranded　whale；　or　whether　much　labour　yields　next　to　nothingas　in
times　of　long…continued　drought。　The　savage；　like　the　child；　borrows
the　capital　he　needs；　and；　at　any　rate；　intentionally；　does　nothing
towards　repayment；　it　would　plainly　be　an　improper　use　of　the　word
〃produce〃　to　say　that　his　labour　in　hunting　for　the　roots；　or　the
fruits；　or　the　eggs；　or　the　grubs　and　snakes；　which　he　finds　and　eats；
〃pro　duces〃　or　contributes　to　〃produce〃　them。　The　same　thing　is　true
of　more　advanced　tribes；　who　＇153＇　are　still　merely　hunters；　such　as
the　Esquimaux。　They　may　expend　more　labour　and　skill；　but　it　is　spent
in　destruction。

When　we　pass　from　these　to　men　who　lead　a　purely　pastoral　life；　like
the　South　American　Gauchos；　or　some　Asiatic　nomads；　there　is　an
important　change。　Let　us　suppose　the　owner　of　a　flock　of　sheep　to　live
on　the　milk；　cheese；　and　flesh　which　they　yield。　It　is　obvious　that
the　flock　stands　to　him　in　the　economic　relation　of　the　mother　to　the
child；　inasmuch　as　it　supplies　him　with　food…stuffs　competent　to　make
good　the　daily　and　hourly　losses　of　his　capital　of　workstuff。　If　we
imagine　our　sheep…owner　to　have　access　to　extensive　pastures　and　to　be
troubled　neither　by　predacious　animals　nor　by　rival　shepherds；　the
performance　of　his　pastoral　functions　will　hardly　involve　the
expenditure　of　any　more　labour　than　is　needful　to　provide　him　with　the
exercise　required　to　maintain　health。　And　this　is　true；　even　if　we
take　into　account　the　trouble　originally　devoted　to　the　domestication
of　the　sheep。　It　surely　would　be　a　most　singular　pretension　for　the
shepherd　to　talk　of　the　flock　as　the　〃produce〃　of　his　labour　in　any
but　a　very　limited　sense。　In　truth；　his　labour　would　have　been　a　mere
accessory　of　production　of　very　little　consequence。　Under　the
circumstances　supposed；　a　ram　and　some　ewes；　left　to　themselves　for　a
few　years；　would　probably　generate　as　large　a　flock；　＇154＇　and　the
superadded　labour　of　the　shepherd　would　have　little　more　effect　upon
their　production　than　upon　that　of　the　blackberries　on　the　bushes
about　the　pastures。　For　the　most　part　the　increment　would　be
thoroughly　unearned；　and；　if　it　is　a　rule　of　absolute　political　ethics
that　owners　have　no　claim　upon　〃betterment〃　brought　about
independently　of　their　own　labour；　then　the　shepherd　would　have　no
claim　to　at　least　nine…tenths　of　the　increase　of　the　flock。

But　if　the　shepherd　has　no　real　claim　to　the　title　of　〃producer；〃　who
has？　　Are　the　rams　and　ewes　the　true　〃producers〃？　Certainly　their
title　is　better　if；　borrowing　from　the　old　terminology　of　chemistry；
they　only　claim　to　be　regarded　as　the　〃proximate　principles〃　of
production。　And　yet；　if　strict　justice　is　to　be　dispensed；　even　they
are　to　be　regarded　rather　as　collectors　and　distributors　than　as
〃producers。〃　For　all　that　they　really　do　is　to　collect；　slightly
modify；　and　render　easily　accessible；　the　vital　capital　which　already
exists　in　the　green　herbs　on　which　they　feed；　but　in　such　a　form　as　to
be　practically　out　of　the　reach　of　man。

Thus；　from　an　economic　point　of　view；　the　sheep　are　more　comparable　to
confectioners　than　to　producers。　The　usefulness　of　biscuit　lies　in　the
raw　flour　of　which　it　is　made；　but　raw　flour　does　not　answer　as　an
article　of　human　diet；　and　biscuit　does。　So　the　usefulness　of　mutton
lies　mainly　in　certain　chemical　compounds　which　it　＇155＇　contains：　the
sheep　gets　them　out　of　grass；　we　cannot　live　on　grass；　but　we　can　on
mutton。

Now；　herbaceous　and　all　other　green　plants　stand　alone　among
terrestrial　natural　bodies；　in　so　far　as；　under　the　influence　of
light；　they　possess　the　power　to　build　up；　out　of　the　carbonic　acid
gas　in　the　atmosphere；　water　and　certain　nitrogenous　and　mineral
salts；　those　substances　which　in　the　animal　organism　are　utilised　as
work…stuff。　They　are　the　chief　and；　for　practical　purposes；　the　sole
producers　of　that　vital　capital　which　we　have　seen　to　be　the　necessary
antecedent　of　every　act　of　labour。　Every　green　plant　is　a　laboratory
in　which；　so　long　as　the　sun　shines　upon　it；　materials　furnished　by
the　mineral　world；　gases；　water；　saline　compounds；　are　worked　up　into
those　foodstuffs　without　which　animal　life　cannot　be　carried　on。　And
since；　up　to　the　present　time；　synthetic　chemistry　has　not　advanced　so
far　as　to　achieve　this　feat；　the　green　plant　may　be　said　to　be　the
only　living　worker　whose　labour　directly　results　in　the　production　of
that　vital　capital　which　is　the　necessary　antecedent　of　human　labour。*
Nor　is　this　statement　a　paradox　involving　perpetual　motion；　because
the　energy　by　which　the　plant　does　its　work　is　supplied　by　the
sunthe　primordial　capitalist　so　far　as　we　are　concerned。　But　＇156＇
it　cannot　be　too　strongly　impressed　upon　the　mind　that　sunshine；　air；
water；　the　best　soil　that　is　to　be　found　on　the　surface　of　the　earth；
might　co…exist；　yet　without　plants；　there　is　no　known　agency　competent
to　generate　the　so…called　〃protein　compounds；〃　by　which　alone　animal
life　can　be　permanently　supported。　And　not　only　are　plants　thus
essential；　but；　in　respect　of　particular　kinds　of　animals；　they　must
be　plants　of　a　particular　nature。　If　there　were　no　terrestrial　green
plants　but；　say；　cypresses　and　mosses；　pastoral　and　agricultural　life
would　be　alike　impossible；　indeed；　it　is　difficult　to　imagine　the
possibility　of　the　existence　of　any　large　animal；　as　the　labour
required　to　get　at　a　sufficiency　of　the　store　of　food…stuffs；
contained　in　such　plants　as　these；　could　hardly　extract　from　them　an
equivalent　for　the　waste　involved　in　that　expenditure　of　work。

　　　　*　It　remains　to　be　seen　whether　the　plants　which　have　no
　　　　chlorophyll；　and　flourish　in　darkness；　such　as　the　Fungi；　can
　　　　live　upon　purely　mineral　food。

We　are　compact　of　dust　and　air；　from　that　we　set　out；　and　to　that
complexion　must　we　come　at　last。　The　plant　either　directly；　or　by　some
animal　intermediary；　lends　us　the　capital　which　enables　us　to　carry　on
the　business　of　life；　as　we　flit　through　the　upper　world；　from　the　one
term　of　our　journey　to　the　other。　Popularly；　no　doubt；　it　is
permissible　to　speak　of　the　soil　as　a　〃producer；〃　just　as　we　may　talk
of　the　daily　movement　of　the　sun。　　But；　as　I　have　elsewhere　remarked；
propositions　which　are　to　bear　any　deductive　strain　that　may　be　put
upon　them　must　run　the　risk　of　＇157＇　seeming　pedantic；　rather　than
that　of　being　inaccurate。　And　the　statement　that　land；　in　the　sense　of
cultivable　soil；　is　a　producer；　or　even　one　of　the　essentials　of
economic　production；　is　anything　but　accurate。　The　process　of
water…culture；　in　which　a　plant　is　not　〃planted〃　in　any　soil；　but　is
merely　supported　in　water　containing　in　solution　the　mineral
ingredients　essential　to　that　plant；　is　now　thoroughly　understood；
and；　if　it　were　worth　while；　a　crop　yielding　abundant　food…stuffs
could　be　raised　on　an　acre　of　fresh　water；　no　less　than　on　an　acre　of
dry　land。　In　the　Arctic　regions；　again；　land　has　nothing　to　do　with
〃production〃　in　the　social　economy　of　the　Esquimaux；　who　live　on　seals
and　other　marine　animals；　and　might；　like　Proteus；　shepherd　the　flocks
of　Poseidon　if　they　had　a　mind　for　pastoral　life。　But　the　seals　and
the　bears　are　dependent　on　other　inhabitants　of　the　sea；　until；
somewhere　in　the　series；　we　come　to　the　minute　green　plants　which
float　in　the　ocean；　and　are　the　real　〃producers〃　by　which　the　whole　of
its　vast　animal　population　is　supported。*　Thus；　when　we　find　set　forth
as　an　〃absolute〃　＇158＇　truth　the　statement　that　the　essential　factors
in　economic　production　are　land；　capital　and　labourwhen　this　is
offered　as　an　axiom　whence　all　sorts　of　other　important　truths　may　be
deducedit　is　needful　to　remember　that　the　assertion　is　true　only
with　a　qualification。　Undoubtedly　〃vital　capital〃　is　essential；　for；
as　we　have　seen；　no　human　work　can　be　done　unless　it　exists；　not　even
that　internal　work　of　the　body　which　is　necessary　to　passive　life。
But；　with　respect　to　labour　（that　is；　human　labour）　I　hope　to　have
left　no　doubt　on　the　reader's　mind　that；　in　regard　to　production；　the
importance　of　human　labour　may　be　so　small　as　to　be　almost　a　vanishing
quantity。　Moreover；　it　i