evolution and ethics and other essays-第20部分

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importance　of　human　labour　may　be　so　small　as　to　be　almost　a　vanishing
quantity。　Moreover；　it　is　certain　that　there　is　no　approximation　to　a
fixed　ratio　between　the　expenditure　of　labour　and　the　production　of
that　vital　capital　which　is　the　foundation　of　all　wealth。　For；　suppose
that　we　introduce　into　our　suppositious　pastoral　paradise　beasts　of
prey　and　rival　shepherds；　the　amount　of　labour　thrown　upon　the
sheep…owner　may　increase　almost　indefinitely；　and　its　importance　as　a
condition　of　production　may　be　enormously　augmented；　while　the
quantity　of　produce　remains　stationary。　Compare　for　a　moment　the
unimportance　of　the　shepherd's　labour；　under　the　circumstances　first
defined；　with　its　indispensability　in　countries　in　which　the　water　for
the　sheep　has　to　be　drawn　from　deep　＇159＇　wells；　or　in　which　the　flock
has　to　be　defended　from　wolves　or　from　human　depredators。　As　to　land；
it　has　been　shown　that；　except　as　affording　mere　room　and　standing
ground；　the　importance　of　land；　great　as　it　may　be；　is　secondary。　The
one　thing　needful　for　economic　production　is　the　green　plant；　as　the
sole　producer　of　vital　capital　from　natural　inorganic　bodies。　Men
might　exist　without　labour　（in　the　ordinary　sense）　and　without　land；
without　plants　they　must　inevitably　perish。

　　　　*　In　some　remarkable　passages　of　the　Botany　of　Sir　James　Ross's
　　　　Antarctic　voyage；　which　took　place　half　a　century　ago；　Sir
　　　　Joseph　Hooker　demonstrated　the　dependence　of　the　animal　life　of
　　　　the　sea　upon　the　minute；　indeed　microscopic；　plants　which　float
　　　　in　it：　a　marvellous　example　of　what　may　be　done　by
　　　　water…culture。　One　might　indulge　in　dreams　of　cultivating　and
　　　　improving　diatoms；　until　the　domesticated　bore　the　same
　　　　relation　to　the　wild　forms；　as　cauliflowers　to　the　primitive
　　　　Brassica　oleracea；　without　passing　beyond　the　limits　of　fair
　　　　scientific　speculation。

That　which　is　true　of　the　purely　pastoral　condition　is　a　fortiori　true
of　the　purely　agricultural*　condition；　in　which　the　existence　of　the
cultivator　is　directly　dependent　on　the　production　of　vital　capital　by
the　plants　which　he　cultivates。　Here；　again；　the　condition　precedent
of　the　work　of　each　year　is　vital　capital。　Suppose　that　a　man　lives
exclusively　upon　the　plants　which　he　cultivates。　It　is　obvious　that　he
must　have　food…stuffs　to　live　upon；　while　he　prepares　the　soil　for
sowing　and　throughout　the　period　which　elapses　between　this　and
harvest。　These　food…stuffs　must　be　yielded　by　the　stock　remaining　over
from　former　crops。　The　result　is　the　same　as　beforethe　pre…existence
of　vital　capital　is　the　necessary　antecedent　of　labour。　Moreover；　the
amount　of　labour　which　contributes；　as　an　accessory　condition；　to　the
production　＇160＇　of　the　crop　varies　as　widely　in　the　case　of
plant…raising　as　in　that　of　cattle…raising。　With　favourable　soil；
climate　and　other　conditions；　it　may　be　very　small；　with　unfavourable；
very　great；　for　the　same　revenue　or　yield　of　food…stuffs。

　　　　*　It　is　a　pity　that　we　have　no　word　that　signifies　plant…culture
　　　　exclusively。　But　for　the　present　purpose　I　may　restrict
　　　　agriculture　to　that　sense。

Thus；　I　do　not　think　it　is　possible　to　dispute　the　following
proposition：　　the　existence　of　any　man；　or　of　any　number　of　men；
whether　organised　into　a　polity　or　not；　depends　on　the　production　of
foodstuffs　（that　is；　vital　capital）　readily　accessible　to　man；　either
directly　or　indirectly；　by　plants。　But　it　follows　that　the　number　of
men　who　can　exist；　say　for　one　year；　on　any　given　area　of　land；　taken
by　itself；　depends　upon　the　quantity　of　food…stuffs　produced　by　such
plants　growing　on　the　area　in　one　year。　If　a　is　that　quantity；　and　b
the　minimum　of　food…stuffs　required　for　each　man；　A/B=N；　the　maximum
number　of　men　who　can　exist　on　the　area。　Now　the　amount　of　production
（a）　is　limited　by　the　extent　of　area　occupied；　by　the　quantity　of
sunshine　which　falls　upon　the　area；　by　the　range　and　distribution　of
temperature；　by　the　force　of　the　winds；　by　the　supply　of　water；　by　the
composition　and　the　physical　characters　of　the　soil；　by　animal　and
vegetable　competitors　and　destroyers。　The　labour　of　man　neither　does；
nor　can；　produce　vital　capital；　all　that　it　can　do　is　to　modify；
favourably　or　unfavourably；　the　conditions　of　its　production。　The　most
important　of　these　＇161＇　namely；　sunshine；　range　of　daily　and
nightly　temperature；　windare　practically　out　of　men's　reach。*　On　the
other　hand；　the　supply　of　water；　the　physical　and　chemical　qualities
of　the　soil；　and　the　influences　of　competitors　and　destroyers；　can
often；　though　by　no　means　always；　be　largely　affected　by　labour　and
skill。　And　there　is　no　harm　in　calling　the　effect　of　such　labour
〃production；〃　if　it　is　clearly　understood　that　〃production〃　in　this
sense　is　a　very　different　thing　from　the　〃production〃　of　food…stuffs
by　a　plant。

　　　　*　I　do　not　forget　electric　lighting；　greenhouses　and　hothouses；
　　　　and　the　various　modes　of　affording　shelter　against　violent
　　　　winds：　but　in　regard　to　production　of　food…stuffs　on　the　large
　　　　scale　they　may　be　neglected。　Even　if　synthetic　chemistry　should
　　　　effect　the　construction　of　proteids；　the　Laborato　ry　will
　　　　hardly　enter　into　competition　with　the　Farm　within　any　time
　　　　which　the　present　generation　need　trouble　itself　about。

We　have　been　dealing　hitherto　with　suppositions　the　materials　of　which
are　furnished　by　everyday　experience；　not　with　mere　a　priori
assumptions。　Our　hypothetical　solitary　shepherd　with　his　flock；　or　the
solitary　farmer　with　his　grain　field；　are　mere　bits　of　such
experience；　cut　out；　as　it　were；　for　easy　study。　Still　borrowing　from
daily　experience；　let　us　suppose　that　either　sheep…owner　or　farmer；
for　any　reason　that　may　be　imagined；　desires　the　help　of　one　or　more
other　men；　and　that；　in　exchange　for　their　labour；　he　offers　so　many
sheep；　or　quarts　of　milk；　or　pounds　of　＇162＇　cheese；　or　so　many
measures　of　grain；　for　a　year's　service。　I　fail　to　discover　any　a
priori　〃rights　of　labour〃　in　virtue　of　which　these　men　may　insist　on
being　employed；　if　they　are　not　wanted。　But；　on　the　other　hand；　I
think　it　is　clear　that　there　is　only　one　condition　upon　which　the
persons　to　whom　the　offer　of　these　〃wages〃　is　made　can　accept　it；　and
that　is　that　the　things　offered　in　exchange　for　a　year's　work　shall
contain　at　least　as　much　vital　capital　as　a　man　uses　up　in　doing　the
year's　work。　For　no　rational　man　could　knowingly　and　willingly　accept
conditions　which　necessarily　involve　starvation。　Therefore　there　is　an
irreducible　minimum　of　wages；　it　is　such　an　amount　of　vital　capital　as
suffices　to　replace　the　inevitable　consumption　of　the　person　hired。
Now；　surely；　it　is　beyond　a　doubt　that　these　wages；　whether　at　or
above　the　irreducible　minimum；　are　paid　out　of　the　capital　disposable
after　the　wants　of　the　owner　of　the　flock　or　of　the　crop　of　grain　are
satisfied；　and；　from　what　has　been　said　already；　it　follows　that　there
is　a　limit　to　the　number　of　men；　whether　hired；　or　brought　in　any　other
way；　who　can　be　maintained　by　the　sheep　owner　or　landowner　out　of　his
own　resources。　Since　no　amount　of　labour　can　produce　an　ounce　of
foodstuff　beyond　the　maximum　producible　by　a　limited　number　of　plants；
under　the　most　favourable　circumstances　in　regard　to　those　conditions
which　are　not　affected　by　labour；　it　follows　＇163＇　that；　if　the　number
of　men　to　be　fed　increases　indefinitely；　a　time　must　come　when　some
will　have　to　starve。　That　is　the　essence　of　the　so…called　Malthusian
doctrine；　and　it　is　a　truth　which；　to　my　mind；　is　as　plain　as　the
general　proposition　that　a　quantity　which　constantly　increases　will；
some　time　or　other；　exceed　any　greater　quantity　the　amount　of　which　is
fixed。

The　foregoing　considerations　leave　no　doubt　about　the　fundamental
condition　of　the　existence　of　any　polity；　or　organised　society　of　men；
either　in　a　purely　pastoral　or　purely　agricultural　state；　or　in　any
mixture　of　both　states。　It　must　possess　a　store　of　vital　capital　to
start　with；　and　the　means　of　repairing　the　consumption　of　that　capital
which　takes　place　as　a　consequence　of　the　work　of　the　members　of　the
society。　And；　if　the　polity　occupies　a　completely　isolated　area　of　the
earth's　surface；　the　numerical　strength　of　that　polity　can　never
exceed　the　quotient　of　the　maximum　quantity　of　food…stuffs　producible
by　the　green　plants　on　that　area；　in　each　year；　divided　by　the
quantity　necessary　for　the　maintenance　of　each　person　during　the　year。
But；　there　is　a　third　mode　of　existence　possible　to　a　polity；　it　may；
conceivably；　be　neither　purely　pastoral　nor　purely　agricultural；　but
purely　manufacturing。　Let　us　suppose　three　islands；　like　Gran　Canaria；
Teneriffe　and　Lanzerote；　in　the　Canaries；　to　be　quite　cut　off　from　the
rest　of　the　world。　Let　Gran　Canaria　be　＇164＇　inhabited　by
grain…raisers；　Teneriffe　by　cattle…breeders；　while　the　population　of
Lanzerote　（which　we　may　suppose　to　be　utterly　barren）　consists　of
carpenters；　woollen　manufacturers；　and　shoemakers。　Then　the　facts　of
daily　experience　teach　us　that　the　people　of　Lanzerote　could　never
have　existed　unless　they　came　to　the　island　provided　with　a　stock　of
food…stuffs；　and　that　they　could　not　continue　to　exist；　unless　that
stock；　as　it　was　consumed；　was　made　up　by　contributions　from　the　vital
capital　of　either　Gran　Canaria；　or　Teneriffe；　or　both。　Moreover；　the
carpenters　of　Lanzerote　could　do　nothing；　unless　they　were　provided
with　wood　from　the　other　islands；　nor　could　the　wool　spinners　and
weavers　or　the　shoemakers　work　without　wool　and　skins　from　the　same
sources。　The　wood　and　the　wool　and　the　skins　are；　in　fact；　the　capital
without　which　their　work　as　manufacturers　in　their　respective　trades
is　impossibleso　that　the　vital　and　other　capital　supplied　by　Gran
Canaria　and　Teneriffe　is　most　indubitably　the　necessary　antecedent　of
the　industrial　labour　of　Lanzerote。　It　is　perfectly　true　that　by　the
time　the　wood；　the　wool；　and　the　skins　reached　Lanzerote　a　good　deal
of　labour　in　cutting；　shearing；　skinning；　transport；　and　so　on；　would
have　been　spent　upon　them。　But　this　does　not　alter　the　fact　that　the
only　〃production〃　which　is　essential　to　the　existence　of　the
population　of　Teneriffe　an