evolution and ethics and other essays-第7部分

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to　close　co…operation　bad　a　great　advantage。*　But；　since　each　man
retained　more　or　less　of　the　faculties　common　to　all　the　rest；　and
especially　a　full　share　of　the　desire　for　unlimited
self…gratification；　the　struggle　for　existence　within　society　could
only　be　gradually　eliminated。　So　long　as　any　of　it　remained；　society
continued　to　be　an　imperfect　instrument　of　the　struggle　for　existence
and；　consequently；　was　improvable　by　the　selective　influence　of　that
struggle。　Other　things　being　alike；　the　tribe　of　savages　in　which
order　was　best　maintained；　in　which　there　was　most　security　within　the
tribe　and　the　most　loyal　mutual　support　outside　it；　would　be　the
survivors。

　　　　*　Collected　Essays；　vol。　v。；　Prologue；　p。　52。

I　have　termed　this　gradual　strengthening　of　the　social　bond；　which；
though　it　arrest　the　struggle　for　existence　inside　society；　up　to　a
certain　point　improves　the　chances　of　society；　as　a　corporate　whole；
in　the　cosmic　strugglethe　ethical　process。　I　have　endeavoured　to
show　that；　when　the　ethical　process　has　advanced　so　far　as　to　secure
＇36＇　every　member　of　the　society　in　the　possession　of　the　means　of
existence；　the　struggle　for　existence；　as　between　man　and　man；　within
that　society　is；　ipso　facto；　at　an　end。　And；　as　it　is　undeniable　that
the　most　highly　civilized　societies　have　substantially　reached　this
position；　it　follows　that；　so　far　as　they　are　concerned；　the　struggle
for　existence　can　play　no　important　part　within　them。*　In　other　words；
the　kind　of　evolution　which　is　brought　about　in　the　state　of　nature
cannot　take　place。

　　　　*　Whether　the　struggle　for　existence　with　the　state　of　nature
　　　　and　with　other　societies；　so　far　as　they　stand　in　the　relation
　　　　of　the　state　of　nature　with　it；　exerts　a　selective　influence
　　　　upon　modern　society；　and　in　what　direction；　are　questions　not
　　　　easy　to　answer。　The　problem　of　the　effect　of　military　and
　　　　industrial　warfare　upon　those　who　wage　it　is　very　complicated。

I　have　further　shown　cause　for　the　belief　that　direct　selection；　after
the　fashion　of　the　horticulturist　and　the　breeder；　neither　has　played；
nor　can　play；　any　important　part　in　the　evolution　of　society；　apart
from　other　reasons；　because　I　do　not　see　how　such　selection　could　be
practised　without　a　serious　weakening；　it　may　be　the　destruction；　of
the　bonds　which　hold　society　together。　It　strikes　me　that　men　who　are
accustomed　to　contemplate　the　active　or　passive　extirpation　of　the
weak；　the　unfortunate；　and　the　superfluous；　who　justify　that　conduct
on　the　ground　that　it　has　the　sanction　of　the　cosmic　process；　and　is
the　only　way　of　ensuring　the　progress　of　the　race；　who；　if　＇37＇　they
are　consistent；　must　rank　medicine　among　the　black　arts　and　count　the
physician　a　mischievous　preserver　of　the　unfit；　on　whose　matrimonial
undertakings　the　principles　of　the　stud　have　the　chief　influence；
whose　whole　lives；　therefore；　are　an　education　in　the　noble　art　of
suppressing　natural　affection　and　sympathy；　are　not　likely　to　have　any
large　stock　of　these　commodities　left。　But；　without　them；　there　is　no
conscience；　nor　any　restraint　on　the　conduct　of　men；　except　the
calculation　of　self…interest；　the　balancing　of　certain　present
gratifications　against　doubtful　future　pains；　and　experience　tells　us
how　much　that　is　worth。　Every　day；　we　see　firm　believers　in　the　hell
of　the　theologians　commit　acts　by　which；　as　they　believe　when　cool；
they　risk　eternal　punishment；　while　they　hold　back　from　those　which　am
opposed　to　the　sympathies　of　their　associates。


　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　XIII。

That　progressive　modification　of　civilization　which　passes　by　the　name
of　the　〃evolution　of　society；〃　is；　in　fact；　a　process　of　an
essentially　different　character；　both　from　that　which　brings　about　the
evolution　of　species；　in　the　state　of　nature；　and　from　that　which
gives　rise　to　the　evolution　of　varieties；　in　the　state　of　art。

There　can　be　no　doubt　that　vast　changes　have　taken　place　in　English
civilization　since　the　reign　＇38＇　of　the　Tudors。　But　I　am　not　aware　of
a　particle　of　evidence　in　favour　of　the　conclusion　that　this
evolutionary　process；　has　been　accompanied　by　any　modification　of　the
physical；　or　the　mental；　characters　of　the　men　who　have　been　the
subjects　of　it。　I　have　not　met　with　any　grounds　for　suspecting　that
the　average　Englishmen　of　to…day　are　sensibly　different　from　those
that　Shakspere　knew　and　drew。　We　look　into　his　magic　mirror　of　the
Elizabethan　age；　and　behold；　nowise　darkly；　the　presentment　of
ourselves。

During　these　three　centuries；　from　the　reign　of　Elizabeth　to　that　of
Victoria；　the　struggle　for　existence　between　man　and　man　has　been　so
largely　restrained　among　the　great　mass　of　the　population　（except　for
one　or　two　short　intervals　of　civil　war）；　that　it　can　have　had　little；
or　no；　selective　operation。　As　to　anything　comparable　to　direct
selection；　it　has　been　practised　on　so　small　a　scale　that　it　may　also
be　neglected。　The　criminal　law；　in　so　far　as　by　putting　to　death　or　by
subjecting　to　long　periods　of　imprisonment；　those　who　infringe　its
provisions；　prevents　the　propagation　of　hereditary　criminal
tendencies；　and　the　poor…law；　in　so　far　as　it　separates　married
couples；　whose　destitution　arises　from　hereditary　defects　of
character；　are　doubtless　selective　agents　operating　in　favour　of　the
non…criminal　and　the　more　effective　members　of　society。　But　the
proportion　of　the　population　which　they　influence　＇39＇　is　very　small；
and；　generally；　the　hereditary　criminal　and　the　hereditary　pauper　have
propagated　their　kind　before　the　law　affects　them。　In　a　large
proportion　of　cases；　crime　and　pauperism　have　nothing　to　do　with
heredity；　but　are　the　consequence；　partly；　of　circumstances　and；
partly；　of　the　possession　of　qualities；　which；　under　different
conditions　of　life；　might　have　excited　esteem　and　even　admiration。　　It
was　a　shrewd　man　of　the　world　who；　in　discussing　sewage　problems；
remarked　that　dirt　is　riches　in　the　wrong　place；　and　that　sound
aphorism　has　moral　applications。　The　benevolence　and　open…handed
generosity　which　adorn　a　rich　man；　may　make　a　pauper　of　a　poor　one；
the　energy　and　courage　to　which　the　successful　soldier　owes　his　rise；
the　cool　and　daring　subtlety　to　which　the　great　financier　owes　his
fortune；　may　very　easily；　under　unfavourable　conditions；　lead　their
possessors　to　the　gallows；　or　to　the　hulks。　Moreover；　it　is　fairly
probable　that　the　children　of　a　〃failure〃　will　receive　from　their
other　parent　just　that　little　modification　of　character　which　makes
all　the　difference。　I　sometimes　wonder　whether　people；　who　talk　so
freely　about　extirpating　the　unfit；　ever　dispassionately　consider
their　own　history。　Surely；　one　must　be　very　〃fit；〃　indeed；　not　to　know
of　an　occasion；　or　perhaps　two；　in　one's　life；　when　it　would　have　been
only　too　easy　to　qualify　for　a　place　among　the　〃unfit。〃

＇40＇　In　my　belief　the　innate　qualities；　physical；　intellectual；　and
moral；　of　our　nation　have　remained　substantially　the　same　for　the　last
four　or　five　centuries。　If　the　struggle　for　existence　has　affected　us
to　any　serious　extent　（and　I　doubt　it）　it　has　been；　indirectly；
through　our　military　and　industrial　wars　with　other　nations。


　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　XIV。


What　is　often　called　the　struggle　for　existence　in　society　（I　plead
guilty　to　having　used　the　term　too　loosely　myself）；　is　a　contest；　not
for　the　means　of　existence；　but　for　the　means　of　enjoyment。　Those　who
occupy　the　first　places　in　this　practical　competitive　examination　are
the　rich　and　the　influential；　those　who　fail；　more　or　less；　occupy　the
lower　places；　down　to　the　squalid　obscurity　of　the　pauper　and　the
criminal。　Upon　the　most　liberal　estimate；　I　suppose　the　former　group
will　not　amount　to　two　per　cent。　of　the　population。　I　doubt　if　the
latter　exceeds　another　two　per　cent。；　but　let　it　be　supposed；　for　the
sake　of　argument；　that　it　is　as　great　as　five　per　cent。*

　　　　*　Those　who　read　the　last　Essay　in　this　volume　will　not　accuse
　　　　me　of　wishing　to　attenuate　the　evil　of　the　existence　of　this
　　　　group；　whether　great　or　small。

As　it　is　only　in　the　latter　group　that　any　thing　comparable　to　the
struggle　for　existence　in　the　state　of　nature　can　take　place；　as　it　is
＇41＇　only　among　this　twentieth　of　the　whole　people　that　numerous　men；
women；　and　children　die　of　rapid　or　slow　starvation；　or　of　the
diseases　incidental　to　permanently　bad　conditions　of　life；　and　as
there　is　nothing　to　prevent　their　multiplication　before　they　are
killed　off；　while；　in　spite　of　greater　infant　mortality；　they　increase
faster　than　the　rich；　it　seems　clear　that　the　struggle　for　existence
in　this　class　can　have　no　appreciable　selective　influence　upon　the
other　95　per　cent。　of　the　population。

What　sort　of　a　sheep　breeder　would　he　be　who　should　content　himself
with　picking　out　the　worst　fifty　out　of　a　thousand；　leaving　them　on　a
barren　common　till　the　weakest　starved；　and　then　letting　the　survivors
go　back　to　mix　with　the　rest？　And　the　parallel　is　too　favourable；
since　in　a　large　number　of　cases；　the　actual　poor　and　the　convicted
criminals　are　neither　the　weakest　nor　the　worst。

In　the　struggle　for　the　means　of　enjoyment；　the　qualities　which　ensure
success　are　energy；　industry；　intellectual　capacity；　tenacity　of
purpose；　and；　at　least；　as　much　sympathy　as　is　necessary　to　make　a　man
understand　the　feelings　of　his　fellows。　Were　there　none　of　those
artificial　arrangements　by　which　fools　and　knaves　are　kept　at　the　top
of　society　instead　of　sinking　to　their　natural　place　at　the　bottom；*
the　struggle　for　the　means　＇42＇　of　enjoyment　would　ensure　a　constant
circulation　of　the　human　units　of　the　social　compound；　from　the　bottom
to　the　top　and　from　the　top　to　the　bottom。　　The　survivors　of　the
contest；　those　who　continued　to　form　the　great　bulk　of　the　polity；
would　not　be　those　〃fittest〃　who　got　to　the　very　top；　but　the　great
body　of　the　moderately　〃fit；〃　whose　numbers　and　superior　propagative
power；　enable　them　always　to　swamp　the　exceptionally　endowed　minority。

　　　　*　I　have　elsewhere　lamented　the　absence　from　society　of　a
　　　　machinery　for　facilitating　the　descent　of　incapacity。
　　　　〃Administrative　Nihilism。〃　Collected　Essays；　vol。　i。　p。　54。

I　think　it　m