the story of mankind-第25部分

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Empire；　the　two　states　defending　the　gateways　of　Europe。

The　Mohammedans　having　conquered　Syria　in　the　seventh

century　were　in　possession　of　the　Holy　Land。　But　they　regarded

Jesus　as　a　great　prophet　（though　not　quite　as　great

as　Mohammed）；　and　they　did　not　interfere　with　the　pilgrims

who　wished　to　pray　in　the　church　which　Saint　Helena；　the

mother　of　the　Emperor　Constantine；　had　built　on　the　spot　of

the　Holy　Grave。　But　early　in　the　eleventh　century；　a　Tartar

tribe　from　the　wilds　of　Asia；　called　the　Seljuks　or　Turks；

became　masters　of　the　Mohammedan　state　in　western　Asia　and

then　the　period　of　tolerance　came　to　an　end。　The　Turks　took

all　of　Asia　Minor　away　from　the　eastern　Roman　Emperors

and　they　made　an　end　to　the　trade　between　east　and　west。



Alexis；　the　Emperor；　who　rarely　saw　anything　of　his　Christian

neighbours　of　the　west；　appealed　for　help　and　pointed　to

the　danger　which　threatened　Europe　should　the　Turks　take

Constantinople。



The　Italian　cities　which　had　established　colonies　along　the

coast　of　Asia　Minor　and　Palestine；　in　fear　for　their　possessions；

reported　terrible　stories　of　Turkish　atrocities　and　Christian

suffering。　All　Europe　got　excited。



Pope　Urban　II；　a　Frenchman　from　Reims；　who　had　been

educated　at　the　same　famous　cloister　of　Cluny　which　had

trained　Gregory　VII；　thought　that　the　time　had　come　for

action。　The　general　state　of　Europe　was　far　from　satisfactory。

The　primitive　agricultural　methods　of　that　day　（unchanged

since　Roman　times）　caused　a　constant　scarcity　of　food。　There

was　unemployment　and　hunger　and　these　are　apt　to　lead　to

discontent　and　riots。　Western　Asia　in　older　days　had　fed　millions。

It　was　an　excellent　field　for　the　purpose　of　immigration。



Therefore　at　the　council　of　Clermont　in　France　in　the　year

1095　the　Pope　arose；　described　the　terrible　horrors　which　the

infidels　had　inflicted　upon　the　Holy　Land；　gave　a　glowing

description　of　this　country　which　ever　since　the　days　of　Moses

had　been　overflowing　with　milk　and　honey；　and　exhorted　the

knights　of　France　and　the　people　of　Europe　in　general　to

leave　wife　and　child　and　deliver　Palestine　from　the　Turks。



A　wave　of　religious　hysteria　swept　across　the　continent。

All　reason　stopped。　Men　would　drop　their　hammer　and　saw；

walk　out　of　their　shop　and　take　the　nearest　road　to　the　east

to　go　and　kill　Turks。　Children　would　leave　their　homes　to　‘‘go

to　Palestine''　and　bring　the　terrible　Turks　to　their　knees　by

the　mere　appeal　of　their　youthful　zeal　and　Christian　piety。

Fully　ninety　percent　of　those　enthusiasts　never　got　within

sight　of　the　Holy　Land。　They　had　no　money。　They　were

forced　to　beg　or　steal　to　keep　alive。　They　became　a　danger

to　the　safety　of　the　highroads　and　they　were　killed　by　the

angry　country　people。



The　first　Crusade；　a　wild　mob　of　honest　Christians；　defaulting

bankrupts；　penniless　noblemen　and　fugitives　from　justice；

following　the　lead　of　half…crazy　Peter　the　Hermit　and　Walter…

without…a…Cent；　began　their　campaign　against　the　Infidels　by

murdering　all　the　Jews　whom　they　met　by　the　way。　They

got　as　far　as　Hungary　and　then　they　were　all　killed。



This　experience　taught　the　Church　a　lesson。　Enthusiasm

alone　would　not　set　the　Holy　Land　free。　Organisation　was

as　necessary　as　good…will　and　courage。　A　year　was　spent　in

training　and　equipping　an　army　of　200；000　men。　They　were

placed　under　command　of　Godfrey　of　Bouillon；　Robert；　duke

of　Normandy；　Robert；　count　of　Flanders；　and　a　number　of

other　noblemen；　all　experienced　in　the　art　of　war。



In　the　year　1096　this　second　crusade　started　upon　its　long

voyage。　At　Constantinople　the　knights　did　homage　to　the

Emperor。　（For　as　I　have　told　you；　traditions　die　hard；　and

a　Roman　Emperor；　however　poor　and　powerless；　was　still　held

in　great　respect）。　Then　they　crossed　into　Asia；　killed　all　the

Moslems　who　fell　into　their　hands；　stormed　Jerusalem；　massacred

the　Mohammedan　population；　and　marched　to　the　Holy

Sepulchre　to　give　praise　and　thanks　amidst　tears　of　piety　and

gratitude。　But　soon　the　Turks　were　strengthened　by　the　arrival

of　fresh　troops。　Then　they　retook　Jerusalem　and　in　turn

killed　the　faithful　followers　of　the　Cross。



During　the　next　two　centuries；　seven　other　crusades　took

place。　Gradually　the　Crusaders　learned　the　technique　of　the

trip。　The　land　voyage　was　too　tedious　and　too　dangerous。

They　preferred　to　cross　the　Alps　and　go　to　Genoa　or　Venice

where　they　took　ship　for　the　east。　The　Genoese　and　the　Venetians

made　this　trans…Mediterranean　passenger　service　a　very

profitable　business。　They　charged　exorbitant　rates；　and　when

the　Crusaders　（most　of　whom　had　very　little　money）　could　not

pay　the　price；　these　Italian　‘‘profiteers''　kindly　allowed　them

to　‘‘work　their　way　across。''　In　return　for　a　fare　from　Venice

to　Acre；　the　Crusader　undertook　to　do　a　stated　amount　of

fighting　for　the　owners　of　his　vessel。　In　this　way　Venice　greatly

increased　her　territory　along　the　coast　of　the　Adriatic　and　in

Greece；　where　Athens　became　a　Venetian　colony；　and　in　the

islands　of　Cyprus　and　Crete　and　Rhodes。



All　this；　however；　helped　little　in　settling　the　question

of　the　Holy　Land。　After　the　first　enthusiasm　had

worn　off；　a　short　crusading　trip　became　part　of　the　liberal

education　of　every　well…bred　young　man；　and　there

never　was　any　lack　of　candidates　for　service　in　Palestine。

But　the　old　zeal　was　gone。　The　Crusaders；　who

had　begun　their　warfare　with　deep　hatred　for　the

Mohammedans　and　great　love　for　the　Christian　people

of　the　eastern　Roman　Empire　and　Armenia；　suffered

a　complete　change　of　heart。　They　came　to　despise　the

Greeks　of　Byzantium；　who　cheated　them　and　frequently　betrayed

the　cause　of　the　Cross；　and　the　Armenians　and　all　the

other　Levantine　races；　and　they　began　to　appreciate　the　vir…

tues　of　their　enemies　who　proved　to　be　generous　and　fair

opponents。



Of　course；　it　would　never　do　to　say　this　openly。　But　when

the　Crusader　returned　home；　he　was　likely　to　imitate　the　manners

which　he　had　learned　from　his　heathenish　foe；　compared

to　whom　the　average　western　knight　was　still　a　good　deal　of　a

country　bumpkin。　He　also　brought　with　him　several　new

food…stuffs；　such　as　peaches　and　spinach　which　he　planted　in　his

garden　and　grew　for　his　own　benefit。　He　gave　up　the　barbarous

custom　of　wearing　a　load　of　heavy　armour　and　appeared

in　the　flowing　robes　of　silk　or　cotton　which　were　the　traditional

habit　of　the　followers　of　the　Prophet　and　were　originally　worn

by　the　Turks。　Indeed　the　Crusades；　which　had　begun　as　a

punitive　expedition　against　the　Heathen；　became　a　course　of

general　instruction　in　civilisation　for　millions　of　young　Europeans。



From　a　military　and　political　point　of　view　the　Crusades

were　a　failure。　Jerusalem　and　a　number　of　cities　were　taken

and　lost。　A　dozen　little　kingdoms　were　established　in　Syria

and　Palestine　and　Asia　Minor；　but　they　were　re…conquered　by

the　Turks　and　after　the　year　1244　（when　Jerusalem　became

definitely　Turkish）　the　status　of　the　Holy　Land　was　the　same

as　it　had　been　before　1095。



But　Europe　had　undergone　a　great　change。　The　people　of

the　west　had　been　allowed　a　glimpse　of　the　light　and　the　sunshine

and　the　beauty　of　the　east。　Their　dreary　castles　no

longer　satisfied　them。　They　wanted　a　broader　life。　Neither

Church　nor　State　could　give　this　to　them。



They　found　it　in　the　cities。







THE　MEDIAEVAL　CITY



WHY　THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　MIDDLE　AGES

SAID　THAT　‘‘CITY　AIR　IS　FREE　AIR''





THE　early　part　of　the　Middle　Ages　had　been　an　era　of

pioneering　and　of　settlement。　A　new　people；　who　thus　far

had　lived　outside　the　wild　range　of　forest；　mountains　and

marshes　which　protected　the　north…eastern　frontier　of　the　Roman

Empire；　had　forced　its　way　into　the　plains　of　western

Europe　and　had　taken　possession　of　most　of　the　land。　They

were　restless；　as　all　pioneers　have　been　since　the　beginning　of

time。　They　liked　to　be　‘‘on　the　go。''　They　cut　down　the

forests　and　they　cut　each　other's　throats　with　equal　energy。

Few　of　them　wanted　to　live　in　cities。　They　insisted　upon　being

‘‘free；''　they　loved　to　feel　the　fresh　air　of　the　hillsides　fill　their

lungs　while　they　drove　their　herds　across　the　wind…swept　pastures。

When　they　no　longer　liked　their　old　homes；　they　pulled

up　stakes　and　went　away　in　search　of　fresh　adventures。



The　weaker　ones　died。　The　hardy　fighters　and　the　courageous

women　who　had　followed　their　men　into　the　wilderness

survived。　In　this　way　they　developed　a　strong　race　of

men。　They　cared　little　for　the　graces　of　life。　They　were　too

busy　to　play　the　fiddle　or　write　pieces　of　poetry。　They　had

little　love　for　discussions。　The　priest；　‘‘the　learned　man''　of　the

village　（and　before　the　middle　of　the　thirteenth　century；　a　layman

who　could　read　and　write　was　regarded　as　a　‘‘sissy''）　was

supposed　to　settle　all　questions　which　had　no　direct　practical

value。　Meanwhile　the　German　chieftain；　the　Frankish　Baron；

the　Northman　Duke　（or　whatever　their　names　and　titles）　occupied

their　share　of　the　territory　which　once　had　been　part　of

the　great　Roman　Empire　and　among　the　ruins　of　past　glory；

they　built　a　world　of　their　own　which　pleased　them　mightily

and　which　they　considered　quite　perfect。



They　managed　the　affairs　of　their　castle　and　the　surrounding

country　to　the　best　of　their　ability。　They　were　as　faithful

to　the　commandments　of　the　Church　as　any　weak　mortal　could

hope　to　be。　They　were　sufficiently　loyal　to　their　king　or　emperor

to　keep　on　good　terms　with　those　distant　but　always　dangerous

potentates。　In　short；　they　tried　to　do　right　and　to　be

fair　to　their　neighbours　without　being　exactly　unfair　to　their

own　interests。



It　was　not　an　ideal　world　in　which　they　found　themselves。

The　greater　part　of　the　people　were　serfs　or　‘‘villains；''　farm…

hands　who　were　as　much　a　part　of　the　soil　upon　which　they

lived　as　the　cows　and　sheep　whose　stables　they　shared。　Their

fat