the story of mankind-第29部分

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love；　charity　and　forgiveness。　As　a　handbook　of　astronomy；

zoology；　botany；　geometry　and　all　the　other　sciences；　the　venerable

book　is　not　entirely　reliable。　In　the　twelfth　century；　a

second　book　was　added　to　the　mediaeval　library；　the　great

encyclopaedia　of　useful　knowledge；　compiled　by　Aristotle；　the

Greek　philosopher　of　the　fourth　century　before　Christ。　Why

the　Christian　church　should　have　been　willing　to　accord　such

high　honors　to　the　teacher　of　Alexander　the　Great；　whereas

they　condemned　all　other　Greek　philosophers　on　account　of

their　heathenish　doctrines；　I　really　do　not　know。　But　next　to

the　Bible；　Aristotle　was　recognized　as　the　only　reliable　teacher

whose　works　could　be　safely　placed　into　the　hands　of　true

Christians。



His　works　had　reached　Europe　in　a　somewhat　roundabout

way。　They　had　gone　from　Greece　to　Alexandria。　They　had

then　been　translated　from　the　Greek　into　the　Arabic　language

by　the　Mohammedans　who　conquered　Egypt　in　the　seventh

century。　They　had　followed　the　Moslem　armies　into　Spain　and

the　philosophy　of　the　great　Stagirite　（Aristotle　was　a　native　of

Stagira　in　Macedonia）　was　taught　in　the　Moorish　universities

of　Cordova。　The　Arabic　text　was　then　translated　into　Latin

by　the　Christian　students　who　had　crossed　the　Pyrenees　to　get

a　liberal　education　and　this　much　travelled　version　of　the　famous

books　was　at　last　taught　at　the　different　schools　of　northwestern

Europe。　It　was　not　very　clear；　but　that　made　it　all

the　more　interesting。



With　the　help　of　the　Bible　and　Aristotle；　the　most　brilliant

men　of　the　Middle　Ages　now　set　to　work　to　explain　all　things

between　Heaven　and　Earth　in　their　relation　to　the　expressed

will　of　God。　These　brilliant　men；　the　so…called　Scholasts　or

Schoolmen；　were　really　very　intelligent；　but　they　had　obtained

their　information　exclusively　from　books；　and　never　from　actual

observation。　If　they　wanted　to　lecture　on　the　sturgeon

or　on　caterpillars；　they　read　the　Old　and　New　Testaments　and

Aristotle；　and　told　their　students　everything　these　good　books

had　to　say　upon　the　subject　of　caterpillars　and　sturgeons。

They　did　not　go　out　to　the　nearest　river　to　catch　a　sturgeon。

They　did　not　leave　their　libraries　and　repair　to　the　backyard

to　catch　a　few　caterpillars　and　look　at　these　animals　and　study

them　in　their　native　haunts。　Even　such　famous　scholars　as

Albertus　Magnus　and　Thomas　Aquinas　did　not　inquire　whether

the　sturgeons　in　the　land　of　Palestine　and　the　caterpillars　of

Macedonia　might　not　have　been　different　from　the　sturgeons

and　the　caterpillars　of　western　Europe。



When　occasionally　an　exceptionally　curious　person　like

Roger　Bacon　appeared　in　the　council　of　the　learned　and　began

to　experiment　with　magnifying　glasses　and　funny　little　telescopes

and　actually　dragged　the　sturgen　and　the　caterpillar

into　the　lecturing　room　and　proved　that　they　were　different

from　the　creatures　described　by　the　Old　Testament　and　by

Aristotle；　the　Schoolmen　shook　their　dignified　heads。　Bacon

was　going　too　far。　When　he　dared　to　suggest　that　an　hour

of　actual　observation　was　worth　more　than　ten　years　with

Aristotle　and　that　the　works　of　that　famous　Greek　might　as

well　have　remained　untranslated　for　all　the　good　they　had　ever

done；　the　scholasts　went　to　the　police　and　said；　‘‘This　man　is

a　danger　to　the　safety　of　the　state。　He　wants　us　to　study

Greek　that　we　may　read　Aristotle　in　the　original。　Why　should

he　not　be　contented　with　our　Latin…Arabic　translation　which

has　satisfied　our　faithful　people　for　so　many　hundred　years？

Why　is　he　so　curious　about　the　insides　of　fishes　and　the　insides

of　insects？　He　is　probably　a　wicked　magician　trying　to　upset

the　established　order　of　things　by　his　Black　Magic。''　And　so

well　did　they　plead　their　cause　that　the　frightened　guardians

of　the　peace　forbade　Bacon　to　write　a　single　word　for　more

than　ten　years。　When　he　resumed　his　studies　he　had　learned

a　lesson。　He　wrote　his　books　in　a　queer　cipher　which　made　it

impossible　for　his　contemporaries　to　read　them；　a　trick　which

became　common　as　the　Church　became　more　desperate　in　its

attempts　to　prevent　people　from　asking　questions　which　would

lead　to　doubts　and　infidelity。



This；　however；　was　not　done　out　of　any　wicked　desire　to

keep　people　ignorant。　The　feeling　which　prompted　the　heretic

hunters　of　that　day　was　really　a　very　kindly　one。　They　firmly

believednay；　they　knewthat　this　life　was　but　the　preparation

for　our　real　existence　in　the　next　world。　They　felt　convinced

that　too　much　knowledge　made　people　uncomfortable；

filled　their　minds　with　dangerous　opinions　and　led　to　doubt

and　hence　to　perdition。　A　mediaeval　Schoolman　who　saw　one

of　his　pupils　stray　away　from　the　revealed　authority　of　the

Bible　and　Aristotle；　that　he　might　study　things　for　himself；　felt

as　uncomfortable　as　a　loving　mother　who　sees　her　young　child

approach　a　hot　stove。　She　knows　that　he　will　burn　his　little

fingers　if　he　is　allowed　to　touch　it　and　she　tries　to　keep　him

back；　if　necessary　she　will　use　force。　But　she　really　loves

the　child　and　if　he　will　only　obey　her；　she　will　be　as　good　to　him

as　she　possibly　can　be。　In　the　same　way　the　mediaeval　guardians

of　people's　souls；　while　they　were　strict　in　all　matters

pertaining　to　the　Faith；　slaved　day　and　night　to　render　the

greatest　possible　service　to　the　members　of　their　flock。　They

held　out　a　helping　hand　whenever　they　could　and　the　society

of　that　day　shows　the　influence　of　thousands　of　good　men　and

pious　women　who　tried　to　make　the　fate　of　the　average　mortal

as　bearable　as　possible。



A　serf　was　a　serf　and　his　position　would　never　change。　But

the　Good　Lord　of　the　Middle　Ages　who　allowed　the　serf　to

remain　a　slave　all　his　life　had　bestowed　an　immortal　soul　upon

this　humble　creature　and　therefore　he　must　be　protected　in　his

rights；　that　he　might　live　and　die　as　a　good　Christian。　When

he　grew　too　old　or　too　weak　to　work　he　must　be　taken　care

of　by　the　feudal　master　for　whom　he　had　worked。　The　serf；

therefore；　who　led　a　monotonous　and　dreary　life；　was　never

haunted　by　fear　of　to…morrow。　He　knew　that　he　was　‘‘safe''

that　he　could　not　be　thrown　out　of　employment；　that　he　would

always　have　a　roof　over　his　head　（a　leaky　roof；　perhaps；　but

roof　all　the　same）；　and　that　he　would　always　have　something

to　eat。



This　feeling　of　‘‘stability''　and　of　‘‘safety''　was　found　in　all

classes　of　society。　In　the　towns　the　merchants　and　the　artisans

established　guilds　which　assured　every　member　of　a　steady　income。

It　did　not　encourage　the　ambitious　to　do　better　than

their　neighbours。　Too　often　the　guilds　gave　protection　to

the　‘‘slacker''　who　managed　to　‘‘get　by。''　But　they　established

a　general　feeling　of　content　and　assurance　among　the

labouring　classes　which　no　longer　exists　in　our　day　of　general

competition。　The　Middle　Ages　were　familiar　with　the　dangers

of　what　we　modern　people　call　‘‘corners；''　when　a　single　rich

man　gets　hold　of　all　the　available　grain　or　soap　or　pickled

herring；　and　then　forces　the　world　to　buy　from　him　at　his　own

price。　The　authorities；　therefore；　discouraged　wholesale　trading

and　regulated　the　price　at　which　merchants　were　allowed

to　sell　their　goods。



The　Middle　Ages　disliked　competition。　Why　compete　and

fill　the　world　with　hurry　and　rivalry　and　a　multitude　of　pushing

men；　when　the　Day　of　Judgement　was　near　at　hand；　when

riches　would　count　for　nothing　and　when　the　good　serf　would

enter　the　golden　gates　of　Heaven　while　the　bad　knight　was

sent　to　do　penance　in　the　deepest　pit　of　Inferno？



In　short；　the　people　of　the　Middle　Ages　were　asked　to　surrender

part　of　their　liberty　of　thought　and　action；　that　they

might　enjoy　greater　safety　from　poverty　of　the　body　and　poverty

of　the　soul。



And　with　a　very　few　exceptions；　they　did　not　object。　They

firmly　believed　that　they　were　mere　visitors　upon　this　planet

that　they　were　here　to　be　prepared　for　a　greater　and　more

important　life。　Deliberately　they　turned　their　backs　upon　a

world　which　was　filled　with　suffering　and　wickedness　and

injustice。　They　pulled　down　the　blinds　that　the　rays　of　the

sun　might　not　distract　their　attention　from　that　chapter　in　the

Apocalypse　which　told　them　of　that　heavenly　light　which　was

to　illumine　their　happiness　in　all　eternity。　They　tried　to　close

their　eyes　to　most　of　the　joys　of　the　world　in　which　they　lived

that　they　might　enjoy　those　which　awaited　them　in　the　near

future。　They　accepted　life　as　a　necessary　evil　and　welcomed

death　as　the　beginning　of　a　glorious　day。



The　Greeks　and　the　Romans　had　never　bothered　about　the

future　but　had　tried　to　establish　their　Paradise　right　here　upon

this　earth。　They　had　succeeded　in　making　life　extremely　pleasant

for　those　of　their　fellow　men　who　did　not　happen　to　be

slaves。　Then　came　the　other　extreme　of　the　Middle　Ages；

when　man　built　himself　a　Paradise　beyond　the　highest　clouds

and　turned　this　world　into　a　vale　of　tears　for　high　and　low；

for　rich　and　poor；　for　the　intelligent　and　the　dumb。　It　was

time　for　the　pendulum　to　swing　back　in　the　other　direction；　as

I　shall　tell　you　in　my　next　chapter。







MEDIAEVAL　TRADE



HOW　THE　CRUSADES　ONCE　MORE　MADE　THE

MEDITERRANEAN　A　BUSY　CENTRE　OF

TRADE　AND　HOW　THE　CITIES　OF　THE

ITALIAN　PENINSULA　BECAME　THE　GREAT

DISTRIBUTING　CENTRE　FOR　THE　COMMERCE

WITH　ASIA　AND　AFRICA





THERE　were　three　good　reasons　why　the　Italian　cities　should

have　been　the　first　to　regain　a　position　of　great　importance

during　the　late　Middle　Ages。　The　Italian　peninsula　had　been

settled　by　Rome　at　a　very　early　date。　There　had　been　more

roads　and　more　towns　and　more　schools　than　anywhere　else

in　Europe。



The　barbarians　had　burned　as　lustily　in　Italy　as　elsewhere；

but　there　had　been　so　much　to　destroy　that　more　had　been　able

to　survive。　In　the　second　place；　the　Pope　lived　in　Italy　and

as　the　head　of　a　vast　political　machine；　which　owned　land　and

serfs　and　bui