the story of mankind-第30部分

快捷操作: 按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页 按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页 按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部! 如果本书没有阅读完，想下次继续接着阅读，可使用上方 "收藏到我的浏览器" 功能 和 "加入书签" 功能！


to　survive。　In　the　second　place；　the　Pope　lived　in　Italy　and

as　the　head　of　a　vast　political　machine；　which　owned　land　and

serfs　and　buildings　and　forests　and　rivers　and　conducted　courts

of　law；　he　was　in　constant　receipt　of　a　great　deal　of　money。

The　Papal　authorities　had　to　be　paid　in　gold　and　silver　as　did

the　merchants　and　ship…owners　of　Venice　and　Genoa。　The

cows　and　the　eggs　and　the　horses　and　all　the　other　agricultural

products　of　the　north　and　the　west　must　be　changed　into　actual

cash　before　the　debt　could　be　paid　in　the　distant　city　of　Rome。



This　made　Italy　the　one　country　where　there　was　a　comparative

abundance　of　gold　and　silver。　Finally；　during　the　Crusades；

the　Italian　cities　had　become　the　point　of　embarkation

for　the　Crusaders　and　had　profiteered　to　an　almost　unbelievable

extent。



And　after　the　Crusades　had　come　to　an　end；　these　same

Italian　cities　remained　the　distributing　centres　for　those　Oriental

goods　upon　which　the　people　of　Europe　had　come　to　depend

during　the　time　they　had　spent　in　the　near　east。



Of　these　towns；　few　were　as　famous　as　Venice。　Venice　was

a　republic　built　upon　a　mud　bank。　Thither　people　from　the

mainland　had　fled　during　the　invasions　of　the　barbarians　in　the

fourth　century。　Surrounded　on　all　sides　by　the　sea　they　had

engaged　in　the　business　of　salt…making。　Salt　had　been　very

scarce　during　the　Middle　Ages；　and　the　price　had　been　high。

For　hundreds　of　years　Venice　had　enjoyed　a　monopoly　of

this　indispensable　table　commodity　（I　say　indispensable；　because

people；　like　sheep；　fall　ill　unless　they　get　a　certain　amount

of　salt　in　their　food）。　The　people　had　used　this　monopoly　to

increase　the　power　of　their　city。　At　times　they　had　even　dared

to　defy　the　power　of　the　Popes。　The　town　had　grown　rich　and

had　begun　to　build　ships；　which　engaged　in　trade　with　the

Orient。　During　the　Crusades；　these　ships　were　used　to　carry

passengers　to　the　Holy　Land；　and　when　the　passengers　could

not　pay　for　their　tickets　in　cash；　they　were　obliged　to　help　the

Venetians　who　were　for　ever　increasing　their　colonies　in　the

AEgean　Sea；　in　Asia　Minor　and　in　Egypt。



By　the　end　of　the　fourteenth　century；　the　population　had

grown　to　two　hundred　thousand；　which　made　Venice　the　biggest

city　of　the　Middle　Ages。　The　people　were　without　influence

upon　the　government　which　was　the　private　affair　of　a

small　number　of　rich　merchant　families。　They　elected　a　senate

and　a　Doge　（or　Duke）；　but　the　actual　rulers　of　the　city　were

the　members　of　the　famous　Council　of　Ten；who　maintained

themselves　with　the　help　of　a　highly　organised　system　of　secret

service　men　and　professional　murderers；　who　kept　watch　upon

all　citizens　and　quietly　removed　those　who　might　be　dangerous

to　the　safety　of　their　high…handed　and　unscrupulous　Committee

of　Public　Safety。



The　other　extreme　of　government；　a　democracy　of　very

turbulent　habits；　was　to　be　found　in　Florence。　This　city

controlled　the　main　road　from　northern　Europe　to　Rome　and　used

the　money　which　it　had　derived　from　this　fortunate　economic

position　to　engage　in　manufacturing。　The　Florentines　tried　to

follow　the　example　of　Athens。　Noblemen；　priests　and　members

of　the　guilds　all　took　part　in　the　discussions　of　civic　affairs。

This　led　to　great　civic　upheaval。　People　were　forever　being　divided

into　political　parties　and　these　parties　fought　each　other

with　intense　bitterness　and　exiled　their　enemies　and　confiscated

their　possessions　as　soon　as　they　had　gained　a　victory　in　the

council。　After　several　centuries　of　this　rule　by　organised　mobs；

the　inevitable　happened。　A　powerful　family　made　itself　master

of　the　city　and　governed　the　town　and　the　surrounding　country

after　the　fashion　of　the　old　Greek　‘‘tyrants。''　They　were　called

the　Medici。　The　earliest　Medici　had　been　physicians　（medicus

is　Latin　for　physician；　hence　their　name）；　but　later　they　had

turned　banker。　Their　banks　and　their　pawnshops　were　to　be

found　in　all　the　more　important　centres　of　trade。　Even　today

our　American　pawn…shops　display　the　three　golden　balls

which　were　part　of　the　coat　of　arms　of　the　mighty　house　of

the　Medici；　who　became　rulers　of　Florence　and　married　their

daughters　to　the　kings　of　France　and　were　buried　in　graves

worthy　of　a　Roman　Caesar。



Then　there　was　Genoa；　the　great　rival　of　Venice；　where

the　merchants　specialised　in　trade　with　Tunis　in　Africa　and

the　grain　depots　of　the　Black　Sea。　Then　there　were　more　than

two　hundred　other　cities；　some　large　and　some　small；　each　a　perfect

commercial　unit；　all　of　them　fighting　their　neighbours　and

rivals　with　the　undying　hatred　of　neighbours　who　are　depriving

each　other　of　their　profits。



Once　the　products　of　the　Orient　and　Africa　had　been

brought　to　these　distributing　centres；　they　must　be　prepared

for　the　voyage　to　the　west　and　the　north。



Genoa　carried　her　goods　by　water　to　Marseilles；　from　where

they　were　reshipped　to　the　cities　along　the　Rhone；　which　in

turn　served　as　the　market　places　of　northern　and　western

France。



Venice　used　the　land　route　to　northern　Europe。　This　ancient

road　led　across　the　Brenner　pass；　the　old　gateway　for

the　barbarians　who　had　invaded　Italy。　Past　Innsbruck；　the

merchandise　was　carried　to　Basel。　From　there　it　drifted　down

the　Rhine　to　the　North　Sea　and　England；　or　it　was　taken　to

Augsburg　where　the　Fugger　family　（who　were　both　bankers

and　manufacturers　and　who　prospered　greatly　by　‘‘shaving''

the　coins　with　which　they　paid　their　workmen）；　looked　after

the　further　distribution　to　Nuremberg　and　Leipzig　and　the

cities　of　the　Baltic　and　to　Wisby　（on　the　Island　of　Gotland）

which　looked　after　the　needs　of　the　Northern　Baltic　and　dealt

directly　with　the　Republic　of　Novgorod；　the　old　commercial

centre　of　Russia　which　was　destroyed　by　Ivan　the　Terrible　in

the　middle　of　the　sixteenth　century。



The　little　cities　on　the　coast　of　north…western　Europe　had

an　interesting　story　of　their　own。　The　mediaeval　world　ate　a

great　deal　of　fish。　There　were　many　fast　days　and　then　people

were　not　permitted　to　eat　meat。　For　those　who　lived　away

from　the　coast　and　from　the　rivers；　this　meant　a　diet　of　eggs

or　nothing　at　all。　But　early　in　the　thirteenth　century　a　Dutch

fisherman　had　discovered　a　way　of　curing　herring；　so　that　it

could　be　transported　to　distant　points。　The　herring　fisheries

of　the　North　Sea　then　became　of　great　importance。　But　some

time　during　the　thirteenth　century；　this　useful　little　fish　（for

reasons　of　its　own）　moved　from　the　North　Sea　to　the　Baltic　and

the　cities　of　that　inland　sea　began　to　make　money。　All　the

world　now　sailed　to　the　Baltic　to　catch　herring　and　as　that　fish

could　only　be　caught　during　a　few　months　each　year　（the　rest

of　the　time　it　spends　in　deep　water；　raising　large　families　of

little　herrings）　the　ships　would　have　been　idle　during　the　rest

of　the　time　unless　they　had　found　another　occupation。　They

were　then　used　to　carry　the　wheat　of　northern　and　central　Russia

to　southern　and　western　Europe。　On　the　return　voyage

they　brought　spices　and　silks　and　carpets　and　Oriental　rugs

from　Venice　and　Genoa　to　Bruges　and　Hamburg　and　Bremen。



Out　of　such　simple　beginnings　there　developed　an　important

system　of　international　trade　which　reached　from　the

manufacturing　cities　of　Bruges　and　Ghent　（where　the　almighty

guilds　fought　pitched　battles　with　the　kings　of　France　and

England　and　established　a　labour　tyranny　which　completely

ruined　both　the　employers　and　the　workmen）　to　the　Republic

of　Novgorod　in　northern　Russia；　which　was　a　mighty　city　until

Tsar　Ivan；　who　distrusted　all　merchants；　took　the　town　and

killed　sixty　thousand　people　in　less　than　a　month's　time　and

reduced　the　survivors　to　beggary。



That　they　might　protect　themselves　against　pirates　and

excessive　tolls　and　annoying　legislation；　the　merchants　of　the

north　founded　a　protective　league　which　was　called　the

‘‘Hansa。''　The　Hansa；　which　had　its　headquarters　in　Lubeck；

was　a　voluntary　association　of　more　than　one　hundred　cities。

The　association　maintained　a　navy　of　its　own　which　patrolled

the　seas　and　fought　and　defeated　the　Kings　of　England　and

Denmark　when　they　dared　to　interfere　with　the　rights　and　the

privileges　of　the　mighty　Hanseatic　merchants。



I　wish　that　I　had　more　space　to　tell　you　some　of　the　wonderful

stories　of　this　strange　commerce　which　was　carried　on

across　the　high　mountains　and　across　the　deep　seas　amidst

such　dangers　that　every　voyage　became　a　glorious　adventure。

But　it　would　take　several　volumes　and　it　cannot　be　done　here。



Besides；　I　hope　that　I　have　told　you　enough　about　the　Middle

Ages　to　make　you　curious　to　read　more　in　the　excellent　books

of　which　I　shall　give　you　a　list　at　the　end　of　this　volume。



The　Middle　Ages；　as　I　have　tried　to　show　you；　had　been　a

period　of　very　slow　progress。　The　people　who　were　in　power

believed　that　‘‘progress''　was　a　very　undesirable　invention　of

the　Evil　One　and　ought　to　be　discouraged；　and　as　they　hap…

pened　to　occupy　the　seats　of　the　mighty；　it　was　easy　to　enforce

their　will　upon　the　patient　serfs　and　the　illiterate　knights。

Here　and　there　a　few　brave　souls　sometimes　ventured　forth　into

the　forbidden　region　of　science；　but　they　fared　badly　and　were

considered　lucky　when　they　escaped　with　their　lives　and　a　jail

sentence　of　twenty　years。



In　the　twelfth　and　thirteenth　centuries　the　flood　of

international　commerce　swept　over　western　Europe　as　the　Nile

had　swept　across　the　valley　of　ancient　Egypt。　It　left　behind

a　fertile　sediment　of　prosperity。　Prosperity　meant　leisure

hours　and　these　leisure　hours　gave　both　men　and　women　a

chance　to　buy　manuscripts　and　take　an　interest　in　literature

and　art　and　music。



Then　once　more　was　the　world　filled　with　that　divine　curiosity

which　has　elevated　man　from　the　ranks　of　those　other

mammals　who　are　his　distant　cousins　but　who　have　remained

dumb；　and　the　cities；　of　whose　growth　and　development　I　h