the story of mankind-第39部分

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The　Renaissance　began　in　Italy。　From　there　it　spread

to　France。　It　was　not　quite　successful　in　Spain；　where

five　hundred　years　of　warfare　with　the　Moors　had　made　the

people　very　narrow　minded　and　very　fanatical　in　all　religious

matters。　The　circle　had　grown　wider　and　wider；　but　once　the

Alps　had　been　crossed；　the　Renaissance　had　suffered　a　change。



The　people　of　northern　Europe；　living　in　a　very　different

climate；　had　an　outlook　upon　life　which　contrasted　strangely

with　that　of　their　southern　neighbours。　The　Italians　lived　out

in　the　open；　under　a　sunny　sky。　It　was　easy　for　them　to　laugh

and　to　sing　and　to　be　happy。　The　Germans；　the　Dutch；　the

English；　the　Swedes；　spent　most　of　their　time　indoors；　listening

to　the　rain　beating　on　the　closed　windows　of　their　comfortable

little　houses。　They　did　not　laugh　quite　so　much。　They

took　everything　more　seriously。　They　were　forever　conscious

of　their　immortal　souls　and　they　did　not　like　to　be　funny　about

matters　which　they　considered　holy　and　sacred。　The　‘‘humanistic''

part　of　the　Renaissance；　the　books；　the　studies　of　ancient

authors；　the　grammar　and　the　text…books；　interested　them

greatly。　But　the　general　return　to　the　old　pagan　civilisation

of　Greece　and　Rome；　which　was　one　of　the　chief　results　of　the

Renaissance　in　Italy；　filled　their　hearts　with　horror。



But　the　Papacy　and　the　College　of　Cardinals　was　almost

entirely　composed　of　Italians　and　they　had　turned　the　Church

into　a　pleasant　club　where　people　discussed　art　and　music　and

the　theatre；　but　rarely　mentioned　religion。　Hence　the　split

between　the　serious　north　and　the　more　civilised　but　easy…going

and　indifferent　south　was　growing　wider　and　wider　all　the

time　and　nobody　seemed　to　be　aware　of　the　danger　that　threatened

the　Church。



There　were　a　few　minor　reasons　which　will　explain　why　the

Reformation　took　place　in　Germany　rather　than　in　Sweden

or　England。　The　Germans　bore　an　ancient　grudge　against

Rome。　The　endless　quarrels　between　Emperor　and　Pope　had

caused　much　mutual　bitterness。　In　the　other　European　countries

where　the　government　rested　in　the　hands　of　a　strong

king；　the　ruler　had　often　been　able　to　protect　his　subjects

against　the　greed　of　the　priests。　In　Germany；　where　a　shadowy

emperor　ruled　a　turbulent　crowd　of　little　princelings；　the　good

burghers　were　more　directly　at　the　mercy　of　their　bishops　and

prelates。　These　dignitaries　were　trying　to　collect　large　sums

of　money　for　the　benefit　of　those　enormous　churches　which

were　a　hobby　of　the　Popes　of　the　Renaissance。　The　Germans

felt　that　they　were　being　mulcted　and　quite　naturally　they　did

not　like　it。



And　then　there　is　the　rarely　mentioned　fact　that　Germany

was　the　home　of　the　printing　press。　In　northern　Europe　books

were　cheap　and　the　Bible　was　no　longer　a　mysterious　manu…

script　owned　and　explained　by　the　priest。　It　was　a　household

book　of　many　families　where　Latin　was　understood　by　the

father　and　by　the　children。　Whole　families　began　to　read　it；

which　was　against　the　law　of　the　Church。　They　discovered　that

the　priests　were　telling　them　many　things　which；　according　to

the　original　text　of　the　Holy　Scriptures；　were　somewhat　different。

This　caused　doubt。　People　began　to　ask　questions。　And

questions；　when　they　cannot　be　answered；　often　cause　a　great

deal　of　trouble。



The　attack　began　when　the　humanists　of　the　North　opened

fire　upon　the　monks。　In　their　heart　of　hearts　they　still　had

too　much　respect　and　reverence　for　the　Pope　to　direct　their

sallies　against　his　Most　Holy　Person。　But　the　lazy；　ignorant

monks；　living　behind　the　sheltering　walls　of　their　rich　monasteries；

offered　rare　sport。



The　leader　in　this　warfare；　curiously　enough；　was　a　very

faithful　son　of　the　church　Gerard　Gerardzoon；　or　Desiderius

Erasmus；　as　he　is　usually　called；　was　a　poor　boy；　born　in

Rotterdam　in　Holland；　and　educated　at　the　same　Latin　school

of　Deventer　from　which　Thomas　a　Kempis　had　graduated。

He　had　become　a　priest　and　for　a　time　he　had　lived　in　a　monastery。

He　had　travelled　a　great　deal　and　knew　whereof　he　wrote；

When　he　began　his　career　as　a　public　pamphleteer　（he　would

have　been　called　an　editorial　writer　in　our　day）　the　world　was

greatly　amused　at　an　anonymous　series　of　letters　which　had

just　appeared　under　the　title　of　‘‘Letters　of　Obscure　Men。''

In　these　letters；　the　general　stupidity　and　arrogance　of　the

monks　of　the　late　Middle　Ages　was　exposed　in　a　strange

German…Latin　doggerel　which　reminds　one　of　our　modern

limericks。　Erasmus　himself　was　a　very　learned　and　serious

scholar；　who　knew　both　Latin　and　Greek　and　gave　us　the　first

reliable　version　of　the　New　Testament；　which　he　translated

into　Latin　together　with　a　corrected　edition　of　the　original

Greek　text。　But　he　believed　with　Sallust；　the　Roman　poet；

that　nothing　prevents　us　from　‘‘stating　the　truth　with　a　smile

upon　our　lips。''



In　the　year　1500；　while　visiting　Sir　Thomas　More　in　Eng…

land；　he　took　a　few　weeks　off　and　wrote　a　funny　little　book；

called　the　‘‘Praise　of　Folly；''　in　which　he　attacked　the　monks

and　their　credulous　followers　with　that　most　dangerous　of　all

weapons；　humor。　The　booklet　was　the　best　seller　of　the　sixteenth

century。　It　was　translated　into　almost　every　language

and　it　made　people　pay　attention　to　those　other　books　of

Erasmus　in　which　he　advocated　reform　of　the　many　abuses　of

the　church　and　appealed　to　his　fellow　humanists　to　help　him

in　his　task　of　bringing　about　a　great　rebirth　of　the　Christian

faith。



But　nothing　came　of　these　excellent　plans。　Erasmus　was

too　reasonable　and　too　tolerant　to　please　most　of　the　enemies

of　the　church。　They　were　waiting　for　a　leader　of　a　more

robust　nature。



He　came；　and　his　name　was　Martin　Luther。



Luther　was　a　North…German　peasant　with　a　first…class

brain　and　possessed　of　great　personal　courage。　He　was　a

university　man；　a　master　of　arts　of　the　University　of　Erfurt；

afterwards　he　joined　a　Dominican　monastery。　Then　he　became

a　college　professor　at　the　theological　school　of　Wittenberg

and　began　to　explain　the　scriptures　to　the　indifferent　ploughboys

of　his　Saxon　home。　He　had　a　lot　of　spare　time　and　this　he　used

to　study　the　original　texts　of　the　Old　and　New　Testaments。

Soon　he　began　to　see　the　great　difference　which　existed　between

the　words　of　Christ　and　those　that　were　preached　by　the　Popes　and　the　Bishops。

In　the　year　1511；　he　visited　Rome　on　official　business。

Alexander　VI；　of　the　family　of　Borgia；　who　had　enriched　himself

for　the　benefit　of　his　son　and　daughter；　was　dead。　But　his

successor；　Julius　II；　a　man　of　irreproachable　personal　character；

was　spending　most　of　his　time　fighting　and　building　and

did　not　impress　this　serious　minded　German　theologian　with

his　piety。　Luther　returned　to　Wittenberg　a　much　disappointed

man。　But　worse　was　to　follow。



The　gigantic　church　of　St。　Peter　which　Pope　Julius　had

wished　upon　his　innocent　successors；　although　only　half　begun；

was　already　in　need　of　repair。　Alexander　VI　had　spent　every

penny　of　the　Papal　treasury。　Leo　X；　who　succeeded　Julius

in　the　year　1513；　was　on　the　verge　of　bankruptcy。　He　reverted

to　an　old　method　of　raising　ready　cash。　He　began　to　sell

‘‘indulgences。''　An　indulgence　was　a　piece　of　parchment　which

in　return　for　a　certain　sum　of　money；　promised　a　sinner　a　decrease

of　the　time　which　he　would　have　to　spend　in　purgatory。

It　was　a　perfectly　correct　thing　according　to　the　creed　of　the

late　Middle　Ages。　Since　the　church　had　the　power　to　forgive

the　sins　of　those　who　truly　repented　before　they　died；　the

church　also　had　the　right　to　shorten；　through　its　intercession

with　the　Saints；　the　time　during　which　the　soul　must　be　punfied

in　the　shadowy　realms　of　Purgatory。



It　was　unfortunate　that　these　Indulgences　must　be　sold　for

money。　But　they　offered　an　easy　form　of　revenue　and　besides；

those　who　were　too　poor　to　pay；　received　theirs　for　nothing。



Now　it　happened　in　the　year　1517　that　the　exclusive　territory

for　the　sale　of　indulgences　in　Saxony　was　given　to　a

Dominican　monk　by　the　name　of　Johan　Tetzel。　Brother

Johan　was　a　hustling　salesman。　To　tell　the　truth　he　was　a

little　too　eager。　His　business　methods　outraged　the　pious

people　of　the　little　duchy。　And　Luther；　who　was　an　honest

fellow；　got　so　angry　that　he　did　a　rash　thing。　On　the　31st　of

October　of　the　year　1517；　he　went　to　the　court　church　and　upon

the　doors　thereof　he　posted　a　sheet　of　paper　with　ninety…five

statements　（or　theses）；　attacking　the　sale　of　indulgences。

These　statements　had　been　written　in　Latin。　Luther　had　no

intention　of　starting　a　riot。　He　was　not　a　revolutionist。　He

objected　to　the　institution　of　the　Indulgences　and　he　wanted　his

fellow　professors　to　know　what　he　thought　about　them。　But

this　was　still　a　private　affair　of　the　clerical　and　professorial

world　and　there　was　no　appeal　to　the　prejudices　of　the　community

of　laymen。



Unfortunately；　at　that　moment　when　the　whole　world　had

begun　to　take　an　interest　in　the　religious　affairs　of　the　day

it　was　utterly　impossible　to　discuss　anything；　without　at　once

creating　a　serious　mental　disturbance。　In　less　than　two

months；　all　Europe　was　discussing　the　ninety…five　theses　of

the　Saxon　monk。　Every　one　must　take　sides。　Every　obscure

little　theologian　must　print　his　own　opinion。　The　papal

authorities　began　to　be　alarmed。　They　ordered　the　Wittenberg

professor　to　proceed　to　Rome　and　give　an　account　of　his　action。

Luther　wisely　remembered　what　had　happened　to　Huss。　He

stayed　in　Germany　and　he　was　punished　with　excommunication。

Luther　burned　the　papal　bull　in　the　presence　of　an

admiring　multitude　and　from　that　moment；　peace　between　himself

and　the　Pope　was　no　longer　possible。



Without　any　desire　on　his　part；　Luther　had　become　the

leader　of　a　vast　army　of　discontented　Christians。　German

patriots　like　Ulrich　von　Hutten；　rushed　to　his　defence。　The

students　of　Wittenberg　and　Erfurt　and　Leipzig　offere