the story of mankind-第49部分

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against　raids　of　the　wild　Saxon　tribes。　The　Wends；　a　Slavic

tribe　which　inhabited　that　region；　were　subjugated　during　the

tenth　century　and　their　market…place；　by　the　name　of　Brennabor；

became　the　centre　of　and　gave　its　name　to　the　new　province

of　Brandenburg。



During　the　eleventh；　twelfth；　thirteenth　and　fourteenth

centuries；　a　succession　of　noble　families　exercised　the　functions　of

imperial　governor　in　this　frontier　state。　Finally　in　the

fifteenth　century；　the　House　of　Hohenzollern　made　its　appear…

ance；　and　as　Electors　of　Brandenburg；　commenced　to　change　a

sandy　and　forlorn　frontier　territory　into　one　of　the　most　efficient

empires　of　the　modern　world。



These　Hohenzollerns；　who　have　just　been　removed　from

the　historical　stage　by　the　combined　forces　of　Europe　and

America；　came　originally　from　southern　Germany。　They　were

of　very　humble　origin。　In　the　twelfth　century　a　certain　Frederick

of　Hohenzollern　had　made　a　lucky　marriage　and　had　been

appointed　keeper　of　the　castle　of　Nuremberg。　His　descendants

had　used　every　chance　and　every　opportunity　to　improve　their

power　and　after　several　centuries　of　watchful　grabbing；　they

had　been　appointed　to　the　dignity　of　Elector；　the　name　given　to

those　sovereign　princes　who　were　supposed　to　elect　the　Emperors

of　the　old　German　Empire。　During　the　Reformation；

they　had　taken　the　side　of　the　Protestants　and　the　early

seventeenth　century　found　them　among　the　most　powerful　of　the

north　German　princes。



During　the　Thirty　Years　War；　both　Protestants　and

Catholics　had　plundered　Brandenburg　and　Prussia　with　equal

zeal。　But　under　Frederick　William；　the　Great　Elector；　the

damage　was　quickly　repaired　and　by　a　wise　and　careful　use　of

all　the　economic　and　intellectual　forces　of　the　country；　a　state

was　founded　in　which　there　was　practically　no　waste。



Modern　Prussia；　a　state　in　which　the　individual　and　his

wishes　and　aspirations　have　been　entirely　absorbed　by　the

interests　of　the　community　as　a　whole　this　Prussia　dates　back

to　the　father　of　Frederick　the　Great。　Frederick　William　I　was

a　hard　working；　parsimonious　Prussian　sergeant；　with　a　great

love　for　bar…room　stories　and　strong　Dutch　tobacco；　an　intense

dislike　of　all　frills　and　feathers；　（especially　if　they　were　of

French　origin；）　and　possessed　of　but　one　idea。　That　idea　was

Duty。　Severe　with　himself；　he　tolerated　no　weakness　in　his

subjects；　whether　they　be　generals　or　common　soldiers。　The

relation　between　himself　and　his　son　Frederick　was　never　cordial；

to　say　the　least。　The　boorish　manners　of　the　father　offended

the　finer　spirit　of　the　son。　The　son's　love　for　French

manners；　literature；　philosophy　and　music　was　rejected　by　the

father　as　a　manifestation　of　sissy…ness。　There　followed　a　terrible

outbreak　between　these　two　strange　temperaments。　Frederick

tried　to　escape　to　England。　He　was　caught　and　court…

martialed　and　forced　to　witness　the　decapitation　of　his　best

friend　who　had　tried　to　help　him。　Thereupon　as　part　of　his

punishment；　the　young　prince　was　sent　to　a　little　fortress

somewhere　in　the　provinces　to　be　taught　the　details　of　his　future

business　of　being　a　king。　It　proved　a　blessing　in　disguise。

When　Frederick　came　to　the　throne　in　1740；　he　knew　how　his

country　was　managed　from　the　birth　certificate　of　a　pauper's

son　to　the　minutest　detail　of　a　complicated　annual　Budget。



As　an　author；　especially　in　his　book　called　the　‘‘Anti…

Macchiavelli；''　Frederick　had　expressed　his　contempt　for　the

political　creed　of　the　ancient　Florentine　historian；　who　had

advised　his　princely　pupils　to　lie　and　cheat　whenever　it　was

necessary　to　do　so　for　the　benefit　of　their　country。　The　ideal

ruler　in　Frederick's　volume　was　the　first　servant　of　his　people；

the　enlightened　despot　after　the　example　of　Louis　XIV。　In

practice；　however；　Frederick；　while　working　for　his　people

twenty　hours　a　day；　tolerated　no　one　to　be　near　him　as　a

counsellor。　His　ministers　were　superior　clerks。　Prussia　was　his

private　possession；　to　be　treated　according　to　his　own　wishes。

And　nothing　was　allowed　to　interfere　with　the　interest　of　the

state。



In　the　year　1740　the　Emperor　Charles　VI；　of　Austria；

died。　He　had　tried　to　make　the　position　of　his　only　daughter；

Maria　Theresa；　secure　through　a　solemn　treaty；　written　black

on　white；　upon　a　large　piece　of　parchment。　But　no　sooner　had

the　old　emperor　been　deposited　in　the　ancestral　crypt　of　the

Habsburg　family；　than　the　armies　of　Frederick　were　marching

towards　the　Austrian　frontier　to　occupy　that　part　of　Silesia　for

which　（together　with　almost　everything　else　in　central　Europe）

Prussia　clamored；　on　account　of　some　ancient　and　very

doubtful　rights　of　claim。　In　a　number　of　wars；　Frederick

conquered　all　of　Silesia；　and　although　he　was　often　very　near

defeat；　he　maintained　himself　in　his　newly　acquired　territories

against　all　Austrian　counter…attacks。



Europe　took　due　notice　of　this　sudden　appearance　of　a

very　powerful　new　state。　In　the　eighteenth　century；　the　Germans

were　a　people　who　had　been　ruined　by　the　great　religious

wars　and　who　were　not　held　in　high　esteem　by　any　one。　Frederick；

by　an　effort　as　sudden　and　quite　as　terrific　as　that　of

Peter　of　Russia；　changed　this　attitude　of　contempt　into　one

of　fear。　The　internal　affairs　of　Prussia　were　arranged　so

skillfully　that　the　subjects　had　less　reason　for　complaint　than

elsewhere。　The　treasury　showed　an　annual　surplus　instead　of　a

deficit。　Torture　was　abolished。　The　judiciary　system　was

improved。　Good　roads　and　good　schools　and　good　universities；

together　with　a　scrupulously　honest　administration；　made　the

people　feel　that　whatever　services　were　demanded　of　them；

they　（to　speak　the　vernacular）　got　their　money's　worth。



After　having　been　for　several　centuries　the　battle　field　of

the　French　and　the　Austrians　and　the　Swedes　and　the　Danes

and　the　Poles；　Germany；　encouraged　by　the　example　of　Prussia；

began　to　regain　self…confidence。　And　this　was　the　work　of

the　little　old　man；　with　his　hook…nose　and　his　old　uniforms　covered

with　snuff；　who　said　very　funny　but　very　unpleasant　things

about　his　neighbours；　and　who　played　the　scandalous　game　of

eighteenth　century　diplomacy　without　any　regard　for　the　truth；

provided　he　could　gain　something　by　his　lies。　This　in　spite　of

his　book；　‘‘Anti…Macchiavelli。''　In　the　year　1786　the　end

came。　His　friends　were　all　gone。　Children　he　had　never　had。

He　died　alone；　tended　by　a　single　servant　and　his　faithful

dogs；　whom　he　loved　better　than　human　beings　because；　as　he

said；　they　were　never　ungrateful　and　remained　true　to　their

friends。







THE　MERCANTILE　SYSTEM



HOW　THE　NEWLY　FOUNDED　NATIONAL　OR

DYNASTIC　STATES　OF　EUROPE　TRIED　TO

MAKE　THEMSELVES　RICH　AND　WHAT　WAS

MEANT　BY　THE　MERCANTILE　SYSTEM





WE　have　seen　how；　during　the　sixteenth　and　the　seventeenth

centuries；　the　states　of　our　modern　world　began　to　take　shape。

Their　origins　were　different　in　almost　every　case。　Some　had

been　the　result　of　the　deliberate　effort　of　a　single　king。　Others

had　happened　by　chance。　Still　others　had　been　the　result　of

favourable　natural　geographic　boundaries。　But　once　they　had

been　founded；　they　had　all　of　them　tried　to　strengthen　their

internal　administration　and　to　exert　the　greatest　possible　influence

upon　foreign　affairs。　All　this　of　course　had　cost　a　great

deal　of　money。　The　mediaeval　state　with　its　lack　of　centralised

power　did　not　depend　upon　a　rich　treasury。　The　king　got　his

revenues　from　the　crown　domains　and　his　civil　service　paid　for

itself。　The　modern　centralised　state　was　a　more　complicated

affair。　The　old　knights　disappeared　and　hired　government

officials　or　bureaucrats　took　their　place。　Army；　navy；　and

internal　administration　demanded　millions。　The　question　then

became　where　was　this　money　to　be　found？



Gold　and　silver　had　been　a　rare　commodity　in　the　middle

ages。　The　average　man；　as　I　have　told　you；　never　saw　a　gold

piece　as　long　as　he　lived。　Only　the　inhabitants　of　the　large

cities　were　familiar　with　silver　coin。　The　discovery　of　America

and　the　exploitation　of　the　Peruvian　mines　changed　all　this。

The　centre　of　trade　was　transferred　from　the　Mediterranean　to

the　Atlantic　seaboard。　The　old　‘‘commercial　cities''　of　Italy　lost

their　financial　importance。　New　‘‘commercial　nations''　took

their　place　and　gold　and　silver　were　no　longer　a　curiosity。



Through　Spain　and　Portugal　and　Holland　and　England；

precious　metals　began　to　find　their　way　to　Europe　The　sixteenth

century　had　its　own　writers　on　the　subject　of　political

economy　and　they　evolved　a　theory　of　national　wealth　which

seemed　to　them　entirely　sound　and　of　the　greatest　possible

benefit　to　their　respective　countries。　They　reasoned　that　both

gold　and　silver　were　actual　wealth。　Therefore　they　believed

that　the　country　with　the　largest　supply　of　actual　cash　in　the

vaults　of　its　treasury　and　its　banks　was　at　the　same　time　the

richest　country。　And　since　money　meant　armies；　it　followed

that　the　richest　country　was　also　the　most　powerful　and　could

rule　the　rest　of　the　world。



We　call　this　system　the　‘‘mercantile　system；''　and　it　was

accepted　with　the　same　unquestioning　faith　with　which　the

early　Christians　believed　in　Miracles　and　many　of　the　present…

day　American　business　men　believe　in　the　Tariff。　In　practice；

the　Mercantile　system　worked　out　as　follows：　To　get　the

largest　surplus　of　precious　metals　a　country　must　have　a

favourable　balance　of　export　trade。　If　you　can　export　more　to

your　neighbour　than　he　exports　to　your　own　country；　he　will

owe　you　money　and　will　be　obliged　to　send　you　some　of　his

gold。　Hence　you　gain　and　he　loses。　As　a　result　of　this　creed；

the　economic　program　of　almost　every　seventeenth　century

state　was　as　follows：



1。　Try　to　get　possession　of　as　many　precious　metals

as　you　can。



2。　Encourage　foreign　trade　in　preference　to　domestic

trade。



3。　Encourage　those　industries　w