the story of mankind-第51部分

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and　the　great　work　of　exploration　of　Cartier；　Champlain；　La

Salle；　Marquette　and　a　score　of　others　was　lost　to　France。



Only　a　very　small　part　of　this　vast　domain　was　inhabited。

From　Massachusetts　in　the　north；　where　the　Pilgrims　（a　sect

of　Puritans　who　were　very　intolerant　and　who　therefore　had

found　no　happiness　either　in　Anglican　England　or　Calvinist

Holland）　had　landed　in　the　year　1620；　to　the　Carolinas　and

Virginia　（the　tobacco…raising　provinces　which　had　been　founded

entirely　for　the　sake　of　profit）；　stretched　a　thin　line　of

sparsely　populated　territory。　But　the　men　who　lived　in　this

new　land　of　fresh　air　and　high　skies　were　very　different　from

their　brethren　of　the　mother　country。　In　the　wilderness　they

had　learned　independence　and　self…reliance。　They　were　the

sons　of　hardy　and　energetic　ancestors。　Lazy　and　timourous

people　did　not　cross　the　ocean　in　those　days。　The　American

colonists　hated　the　restraint　and　the　lack　of　breathing　space

which　had　made　their　lives　in　the　old　country　so　very　unhappy。

They　meant　to　be　their　own　masters。　This　the　ruling　classes

of　England　did　not　seem　to　understand。　The　government　annoyed

the　colonists　and　the　colonists；　who　hated　to　be　bothered

in　this　way；　began　to　annoy　the　British　government。



Bad　feeling　caused　more　bad　feeling。　It　is　not　necessary

to　repeat　here　in　detail　what　actually　happened　and　what　might

have　been　avoided　if　the　British　king　had　been　more　intelligent

than　George　III　or　less　given　to　drowsiness　and　indifference

than　his　minister；　Lord　North。　The　British　colonists；

when　they　understood　that　peaceful　arguments　would　not

settle　the　difficulties；　took　to　arms。　From　being　loyal　subjects；

they　turned　rebels；　who　exposed　themselves　to　the　punishment

of　death　when　they　were　captured　by　the　German

soldiers；　whom　George　hired　to　do　his　fighting　after　the　pleasant

custom　of　that　day；　when　Teutonic　princes　sold　whole

regiments　to　the　highest　bidder。



The　war　between　England　and　her　American　colonies

lasted　seven　years。　During　most　of　that　time；　the　final　success

of　the　rebels　seemed　very　doubtful。　A　great　number　of

the　people；　especially　in　the　cities；　had　remained　loyal　to　their

king。　They　were　in　favour　of　a　compromise；　and　would　have

been　willing　to　sue　for　peace。　But　the　great　figure　of　Washington

stood　guard　over　the　cause　of　the　colonists。



Ably　assisted　by　a　handful　of　brave　men；　he　used　his　steadfast

but　badly　equipped　armies　to　weaken　the　forces　of　the　king。

Time　and　again　when　defeat　seemed　unavoidable；　his　strategy

turned　the　tide　of　battle。　Often　his　men　were　ill…fed。　During

the　winter　they　lacked　shoes　and　coats　and　were　forced　to　live

in　unhealthy　dug…outs。　But　their　trust　in　their　great　leader

was　absolute　and　they　stuck　it　out　until　the　final　hour　of　victory。



But　more　interesting　than　the　campaigns　of　Washington

or　the　diplomatic　triumphs　of　Benjamin　Franklin　who　was

in　Europe　getting　money　from　the　French　government　and

the　Amsterdam　bankers；　was　an　event　which　occurred　early　in

the　revolution。　The　representatives　of　the　different　colonies

had　gathered　in　Philadelphia　to　discuss　matters　of　common

importance。　It　was　the　first　year　of　the　Revolution。　Most

of　the　big　towns　of　the　sea　coast　were　still　in　the　hands　of　the

British。　Reinforcements　from　England　were　arriving　by　the

ship　load。　Only　men　who　were　deeply　convinced　of　the　righteousness

of　their　cause　would　have　found　the　courage　to　take

the　momentous　decision　of　the　months　of　June　and　July　of

the　year　1776。



In　June；　Richard　Henry　Lee　of　Virginia　proposed　a　motion

to　the　Continental　Congress　that　‘‘these　united　colonies

are；　and　of　right　ought　to　be；　free　and　independent　states；　that

they　are　absolved　from　all　allegiance　to　the　British　crown；　and

that　all　political　connection　between　them　and　the　state　of

Great　Britain　is　and　ought　to　be；　totally　dissolved。''



The　motion　was　seconded　by　John　Adams　of　Massachusetts。

It　was　carried　on　July　the　second　and　on　July　fourth；

it　was　followed　by　an　official　Declaration　of　Independence；

which　was　the　work　of　Thomas　Jefferson；　a　serious　and　exceedingly

capable　student　of　both　politics　and　government　and

destined　to　be　one　of　the　most　famous　of　out　American　presidents。



When　news　of　this　event　reached　Europe；　and　was　followed

by　the　final　victory　of　the　colonists　and　the　adoption　of

the　famous　Constitution　of　the　year　1787　（the　first　of　all　written

constitutions）　it　caused　great　interest。　The　dynastic　system

of　the　highly　centralised　states　which　had　been　developed

after　the　great　religious　wars　of　the　seventeenth　century　had

reached　the　height　of　its　power。　Everywhere　the　palace　of

the　king　had　grown　to　enormous　proportions；　while　the　cities

of　the　royal　realm　were　being　surrounded　by　rapidly　growing

acres　of　slums。　The　inhabitants　of　those　slums　were　showing

signs　of　restlessness。　They　were　quite　helpless。　But　the

higher　classes；　the　nobles　and　the　professional　men；　they　too

were　beginning　to　have　certain　doubts　about　the　economic　and

political　conditions　under　which　they　lived。　The　success　of

the　American　colonists　showed　them　that　many　things　were

possible　which　had　been　held　impossible　only　a　short　time

before。



According　to　the　poet；　the　shot　which　opened　the　battle

of　Lexington　was　‘‘heard　around　the　world。''　That　was　a　bit

of　an　exaggeration。　The　Chinese　and　the　Japanese　and　the

Russians　（not　to　speak　of　the　Australians；　who　had　just　been

re…discovered　by　Captain　Cook；　whom　they　killed　for　his

trouble；）　never　heard　of　it　at　all。　But　it　carried　across　the

Atlantic　Ocean。　It　landed　in　the　powder　house　of　European

discontent　and　in　France　it　caused　an　explosion　which　rocked

the　entire　continent　from　Petrograd　to　Madrid　and　buried　the

representatives　of　the　old　statecraft　and　the　old　diplomacy

under　several　tons　of　democratic　bricks。







THE　FRENCH　REVOLUTION



THE　GREAT　FRENCH　REVOLUTION　PROCLAIMS

THE　PRINCIPLES　OF　LIBERTY；

FRATERNITY　AND　EQUALITY　UNTO　ALL

THE　PEOPLE　OF　THE　EARTH





BEFORE　we　talk　about　a　revolution　it　is　just　as　well　that

we　explain　just　what　this　word　means。　In　the　terms　of　a

great　Russian　writer　（and　Russians　ought　to　know　what　they

are　talking　about　in　this　field）　a　revolution　is　‘‘a　swift　overthrow；

in　a　few　years；　of　institutions　which　have　taken　centuries

to　root　in　the　soil；　and　seem　so　fixed　and　immovable　that

even　the　most　ardent　reformers　hardly　dare　to　attack　them　in

their　writings。　It　is　the　fall；　the　crumbling　away　in　a　brief

period；　of　all　that　up　to　that　time　has　composed　the　essence

of　social；　religious；　political　and　economic　life　in　a　nation。''



Such　a　revolution　took　place　in　France　in　the　eighteenth

century　when　the　old　civilisation　of　the　country　had　grown

stale。　The　king　in　the　days　of　Louis　XIV　had　become

EVERYTHING　and　was　the　state。　The　Nobility；　formerly

the　civil　servant　of　the　federal　state；　found　itself　without　any

duties　and　became　a　social　ornament　of　the　royal　court。



This　French　state　of　the　eighteenth　century；　however；　cost

incredible　sums　of　money。　This　money　had　to　be　produced

in　the　form　of　taxes。　Unfortunately　the　kings　of　France　had

not　been　strong　enough　to　force　the　nobility　and　the　clergy

to　pay　their　share　of　these　taxes。　Hence　the　taxes　were　paid

entirely　by　the　agricultural　population。　But　the　peasants

living　in　dreary　hovels；　no　longer　in　intimate　contact　with　their

former　landlords；　but　victims　of　cruel　and　incompetent　land

agents；　were　going　from　bad　to　worse。　Why　should　they

work　and　exert　themselves？　Increased　returns　upon　their

land　merely　meant　more　taxes　and　nothing　for　themselves

and　therefore　they　neglected　their　fields　as　much　as　they　dared。



Hence　we　have　a　king　who　wanders　in　empty　splendour

through　the　vast　halls　of　his　palaces；　habitually　followed　by

hungry　office　seekers；　all　of　whom　live　upon　the　revenue　obtained

from　peasants　who　are　no　better　than　the　beasts　of　the

fields。　It　is　not　a　pleasant　picture；　but　it　is　not　exaggerated。

There　was；　however；　another　side　to　the　so…called　‘‘Ancien

Regime''　which　we　must　keep　in　mind。



A　wealthy　middle　class；　closely　connected　with　the　nobility

（by　the　usual　process　of　the　rich　banker's　daughter　marrying

the　poor　baron's　son）　and　a　court　composed　of　all　the　most

entertaining　people　of　France；　had　brought　the　polite　art　of

graceful　living　to　its　highest　development。　As　the　best　brains

of　the　country　were　not　allowed　to　occupy　themselves　with

questions　of　political　economics；　they　spent　their　idle　hours

upon　the　discussion　of　abstract　ideas。



As　fashions　in　modes　of　thought　and　personal　behaviour

are　quite　as　likely　to　run　to　extremes　as　fashion　in　dress；　it

was　natural　that　the　most　artificial　society　of　that　day　should

take　a　tremendous　interest　in　what　they　considered　‘‘the　simple

life。''　The　king　and　the　queen；　the　absolute　and　unquestioned

proprietors　of　this　country　galled　France；　together　with　all　its

colonies　and　dependencies；　went　to　live　in　funny　little　country

houses　all　dressed　up　as　milk…maids　and　stable…boys　and　played

at　being　shepherds　in　a　happy　vale　of　ancient　Hellas。　Around

them；　their　courtiers　danced　attendance；　their　court…musicians

composed　lovely　minuets；　their　court　barbers　devised　more

and　more　elaborate　and　costly　headgear；　until　from　sheer　boredom

and　lack　of　real　jobs；　this　whole　artificial　world　of　Versailles

（the　great　show　place　which　Louis　XIV　had　built　far

away　from　his　noisy　and　restless　city）　talked　of　nothing　but

those　subjects　which　were　furthest　removed　from　their　own

lives；　just　as　a　man　who　is　starving　will　talk　of　nothing　except

food。



When　Voltaire；　the　courageous　old　philosopher；　playwright；

historian　and　novelist；　and　the　great　enemy　of　all

religious　and　political　tyranny；　began　to　throw　his　bombs　of

criticism　at　everything　connected　with　the　Established　Orde