the story of mankind-第52部分

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religious　and　political　tyranny；　began　to　throw　his　bombs　of

criticism　at　everything　connected　with　the　Established　Order

of　Things；　the　whole　French　world　applauded　him　and　his

theatrical　pieces　played　to　standing　room　only。　When　Jean

Jacques　Rousseau　waxed　sentimental　about　primitive　man

and　gave　his　contemporaries　delightful　descriptions　of　the

happiness　of　the　original　inhabitants　of　this　planet；　（about

whom　he　knew　as　little　as　he　did　about　the　children；　upon　whose

education　he　was　the　recognised　authority；）　all　France　read

his　‘‘Social　Contract''　and　this　society　in　which　the　king　and

the　state　were　one；　wept　bitter　tears　when　they　heard　Rousseau's

appeal　for　a　return　to　the　blessed　days　when　the　real

sovereignty　had　lain　in　the　hands　of　the　people　and　when　the

king　had　been　merely　the　servant　of　his　people。



When　Montesquieu　published　his　‘‘Persian　Letters''　in

which　two　distinguished　Persian　travellers　turn　the　whole　existing

society　of　France　topsy…turvy　and　poke　fun　at　everything

from　the　king　down　to　the　lowest　of　his　six　hundred

pastry　cooks；　the　book　immediately　went　through　four

editions　and　assured　the　writer　thousands　of　readers　for　his

famous　discussion　of　the　‘‘Spirit　of　the　Laws''　in　which　the

noble　Baron　compared　the　excellent　English　system　with　the

backward　system　of　France　and　advocated　instead　of　an　absolute

monarchy　the　establishment　of　a　state　in　which　the　Executive；

the　Legislative　and　the　Judicial　powers　should　be　in

separate　hands　and　should　work　independently　of　each　other。

When　Lebreton；　the　Parisian　book…seller；　announced　that

Messieurs　Diderot；　d'Alembert；　Turgot　and　a　score　of　other

distinguished　writers　were　going　to　publish　an　Encyclopaedia

which　was　to　contain　‘‘all　the　new　ideas　and　the　new　science

and　the　new　knowledge；''　the　response　from　the　side　of　the

public　was　most　satisfactory；　and　when　after　twenty…two　years

the　last　of　the　twenty…eight　volumes　had　been　finished；　the

somewhat　belated　interference　of　the　police　could　not　repress

the　enthusiasm　with　which　French　society　received　this　most

important　but　very　dangerous　contribution　to　the　discussions

of　the　day。



Here；　let　me　give　you　a　little　warning。　When　you　read　a

novel　about　the　French　revolution　or　see　a　play　or　a　movie；

you　will　easily　get　the　impression　that　the　Revolution　was　the

work　of　the　rabble　from　the　Paris　slums。　It　was　nothing

of　the　kind。　The　mob　appears　often　upon　the　‘‘evolutionary

stage；　but　invariably　at　the　instigation　and　under　the

leadership　of　those　middle…class　professional　men　who　used　the

hungry　multitude　as　an　efficient　ally　in　their　warfare　upon

the　king　and　his　court。　But　the　fundamental　ideas　which

caused　the　revolution　were　invented　by　a　few　brilliant　minds；

and　they　were　at　first　introduced　into　the　charming　drawing…rooms

of　the　‘‘Ancien　Regime''　to　provide　amiable　diversion

for　the　much…bored　ladies　and　gentlemen　of　his　Majesty's　court。

These　pleasant　but　careless　people　played　with　the　dangerous

fireworks　of　social　criticism　until　the　sparks　fell　through

the　cracks　of　the　floor；　which　was　old　and　rotten　just

like　the　rest　of　the　building。　Those　sparks　unfortunately

landed　in　the　basement　where　age…old　rubbish　lay　in　great

confusion。　Then　there　was　a　cry　of　fire。　But　the　owner　of

the　house　who　was　interested　in　everything　except　the　management

of　his　property；　did　not　know　how　to　put　the　small　blaze

out。　The　flame　spread　rapidly　and　the　entire　edifice　was　consumed

by　the　conflagration；　which　we　call　the　Great　French　Revolution。



For　the　sake　of　convenience；　we　can　divide　the　French

Revolution　into　two　parts。　From　1789　to　1791　there　was　a

more　or　less　orderly　attempt　to　introduce　a　constitutional

monarchy。　This　failed；　partly　through　lack　of　good　faith　and

stupidity　on　the　part　of　the　monarch　himself；　partly　through

circumstances　over　which　nobody　had　any　control。



From　1792　to　1799　there　was　a　Republic　and　a　first　effort

to　establish　a　democratic　form　of　government。　But　the　actual

outbreak　of　violence　had　been　preceded　by　many　years　of

unrest　and　many　sincere　but　ineffectual　attempts　at　reform。



When　France　had　a　debt　of　4000　million　francs　and　the

treasury　was　always　empty　and　there　was　not　a　single　thing

upon　which　new　taxes　could　be　levied；　even　good　King　Louis

（who　was　an　expert　locksmith　and　a　great　hunter　but　a　very

poor　statesman）　felt　vaguely　that　something　ought　to　be　done。

Therefore　he　called　for　Turgot；　to　be　his　Minister　of　Finance。

Anne　Robert　Jacques　Turgot；　Baron　de　l'Aulne；　a　man　in　the

early　sixties；　a　splendid　representative　of　the　fast　disappearing

class　of　landed　gentry；　had　been　a　successful　governor　of　a

province　and　was　an　amateur　political　economist　of　great　ability。

He　did　his　best。　Unfortunately；　he　could　not　perform

miracles。　As　it　was　impossible　to　squeeze　more　taxes　out　of

the　ragged　peasants；　it　was　necessary　to　get　the　necessary　funds

from　the　nobility　and　clergy　who　had　never　paid　a　centime。

This　made　Turgot　the　best　hated　man　at　the　court　of　Versailles。

Furthermore　he　was　obliged　to　face　the　enmity　of　Marie

Antoinette；　the　queen；　who　was　against　everybody　who　dared

to　mention　the　word　‘‘economy''　within　her　hearing。　Soon

Turgot　was　called　an　‘‘unpractical　visionary''　and　a　‘‘theoretical…

professor''　and　then　of　course　his　position　became　untenable。

In　the　year　1776　he　was　forced　to　resign。



After　the　‘‘professor''　there　came　a　man　of　Practical　Business

Sense。　He　was　an　industrious　Swiss　by　the　name　of

Necker　who　had　made　himself　rich　as　a　grain　speculator　and

the　partner　in　an　international　banking　house。　His　ambitious

wife　had　pushed　him　into　the　government　service　that　she

might　establish　a　position　for　her　daughter　who　afterwards　as

the　wife　of　the　Swedish　minister　in　Paris；　Baron　de　Stael；

became　a　famous　literary　figure　of　the　early　nineteenth　century。



Necker　set　to　work　with　a　fine　display　of　zeal　just　as　Turgot

had　done。　In　1781　he　published　a　careful　review　of　the　French

finances。　The　king　understood　nothing　of　this　‘‘Compte

Rendu。''　He　had　just　sent　troops　to　America　to　help　the　colonists

against　their　common　enemies；　the　English。　This　expedition

proved　to　be　unexpectedly　expensive　and　Necker　was

asked　to　find　the　necessary　funds。　When　instead　of　producing

revenue；　he　published　more　figures　and　made　statistics

and　began　to　use　the　dreary　warning　about　‘‘necessary　economies''

his　days　were　numbered。　In　the　year　1781　he　was

dismissed　as　an　incompetent　servant。



After　the　Professor　and　the　Practical　Business　Man　came

the　delightful　type　of　financier　who　will　guarantee　everybody

100　per　cent。　per　month　on　their　money　if　only　they　will

trust　his　own　infallible　system。



He　was　Charles　Alexandre　de　Calonne；　a　pushing　official；

who　had　made　his　career　both　by　his　industry　and　his

complete　lack　of　honesty　and　scruples。　He　found　the　country

heavily　indebted；　but　he　was　a　clever　man；　willing　to　oblige

everybody；　and　he　invented　a　quick　remedy。　He　paid　the

old　debts　by　contracting　new　ones。　This　method　is　not　new。

The　result　since　time　immemorial　has　been　disastrous。　In

less　than　three　years　more　than　800；000；000　francs　had　been

added　to　the　French　debt　by　this　charming　Minister　of　Finance

who　never　worried　and　smilingly　signed　his　name　to　every

demand　that　was　made　by　His　Majesty　and　by　his　lovely

Queen；　who　had　learned　the　habit　of　spending　during　the　days

of　her　youth　in　Vienna。



At　last　even　the　Parliament　of　Paris　（a　high　court　of　justice

and　not　a　legislative　body）　although　by　no　means　lacking

in　loyalty　to　their　sovereign；　decided　that　something　must　be

done。　Calonne　wanted　to　borrow　another　80；000；000　francs。

It　had　been　a　bad　year　for　the　crops　and　the　misery　and　hunger

in　the　country　districts　were　terrible。　Unless　something　sensible

were　done；　France　would　go　bankrupt。　The　King　as　always

was　unaware　of　the　seriousness　of　the　situation。　Would　it　not

be　a　good　idea　to　consult　the　representatives　of　the　people？

Since　1614　no　Estates　General　had　been　called　together。　In

view　of　the　threatening　panic　there　was　a　demand　that　the

Estates　be　convened。　Louis　XVI　however；　who　never　could

take　a　decision；　refused　to　go　as　far　as　that。



To　pacify　the　popular　clamour　he　called　together　a　meeting

of　the　Notables　in　the　year　1787。　This　merely　meant　a　gathering

of　the　best　families　who　discussed　what　could　and　should

be　done；　without　touching　their　feudal　and　clerical　privilege

of　tax…exemption。　It　is　unreasonable　to　expect　that　a　certain

class　of　society　shall　commit　political　and　economic　suicide　for

the　benefit　of　another　group　of　fellow…citizens。　The　127

Notables　obstinately　refused　to　surrender　a　single　one　of　their

ancient　rights。　The　crowd　in　the　street；　being　now　exceedingly

hungry；　demanded　that　Necker；　in　whom　they　had　confidence；

be　reappointed。　The　Notables　said　‘‘No。''　The　crowd

in　the　street　began　to　smash　windows　and　do　other　unseemly

things。　The　Notables　fled。　Calonne　was　dismissed。



A　new　colourless　Minister　of　Finance；　the　Cardinal

Lomenie　de　Brienne；　was　appointed　and　Louis；　driven　by　the

violent　threats　of　his　starving　subjects；　agreed　to　call　together

the　old　Estates　General　as　‘‘soon　as　practicable。''　This　vague

promise　of　course　satisfied　no　one。



No　such　severe　winter　had　been　experienced　for　almost　a

century。　The　crops　had　been　either　destroyed　by　floods　or　had

been　frozen　to　death　in　the　fields。　All　the　olive　trees　of　the

Provence　had　been　killed。　Private　charity　tried　to　do　some…

thing　but　could　accomplish　little　for　eighteen　million　starving

people。　Everywhere　bread　riots　occurred。　A　generation　before

these　would　have　been　put　down　by　the　army。　But　the

work　of　the　new　philosophical　school　had　begun　to　bear　fruit。

People　began　to　understand　that　a　shotgun　is　no　effective

remedy　for　a　hungry　stomach　and　even　the　soldiers　（who　came