the story of mankind-第60部分

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and　in　the　year　1773　at　the　request　of　most　of　the　Catholic

powers　of　Europe；　the　order　had　been　suppressed　by　Pope

Clement　XIV。　Now　they　were　back　on　the　job；　and　preached

the　principles　of　‘‘obedience''　and　‘‘love　for　the　legitimate

dynasty''　to　children　whose　parents　had　hired　shopwindows　that

they　might　laugh　at　Marie　Antoinette　driving　to　the　scaffold

which　was　to　end　her　misery。



But　in　the　Protestant　countries　like　Prussia；　things　were

not　a　whit　better。　The　great　patriotic　leaders　of　the　year　1812；

the　poets　and　the　writers　who　had　preached　a　holy　war　upon　the

usurper；　were　now　branded　as　dangerous　‘‘demagogues。''　Their

houses　were　searched。　Their　letters　were　read。　They　were

obliged　to　report　to　the　police　at　regular　intervals　and　give　an

account　of　themselves。　The　Prussian　drill　master　was　let　loose

in　all　his　fury　upon　the　younger　generation。　When　a　party　of

students　celebrated　the　tercentenary　of　the　Reformation　with

noisy　but　harmless　festivities　on　the　old　Wartburg；　the　Prussian

bureaucrats　had　visions　of　an　imminent　revolution。　When

a　theological　student；　more　honest　than　intelligent；　killed　a

Russian　government　spy　who　was　operating　in　Germany；　the

universities　were　placed　under　police…supervision　and　professors

were　jailed　or　dismissed　without　any　form　of　trial。



Russia；　of　course；　was　even　more　absurd　in　these　anti…

revolutionary　activities。　Alexander　had　recovered　from　his　attack

of　piety。　He　was　gradually　drifting　toward　melancholia。　He

well　knew　his　own　limited　abilities　and　understood　how　at

Vienna　he　had　been　the　victim　both　of　Metternich　and　the

Krudener　woman。　More　and　more　he　turned　his　back　upon　the

west　and　became　a　truly　Russian　ruler　whose　interests　lay　in

Constantinople；　the　old　holy　city　that　had　been　the　first　teacher

of　the　Slavs。　The　older　he　grew；　the　harder　he　worked　and　the

less　he　was　able　to　accomplish。　And　while　he　sat　in　his　study；

his　ministers　turned　the　whole　of　Russia　into　a　land　of　military

barracks。



It　is　not　a　pretty　picture。　Perhaps　I　might　have　shortened

this　description　of　the　Great　Reaction。　But　it　is　just　as　well

that　you　should　have　a　thorough　knowledge　of　this　era。　It　was

not　the　first　time　that　an　attempt　had　been　made　to　set　the

clock　of　history　back。　The　result　was　the　usual　one。







NATIONAL　INDEPENDENCE



THE　LOVE　OF　NATIONAL　INDEPENDENCE；

HOWEVER　WAS　TOO　STRONG　TO　BE

DESTROYED　IN　THIS　WAY。　THE　SOUTH

AMERICANS　WERE　THE　FIRST　TO　REBEL

AGAINST　THE　REACTIONARY　MEASURES

OF　THE　CONGRESS　OF　VIENNA；　GREECE

AND　BELGIUM　AND　SPAIN　AND　A　LARGE

NUMBER　OF　OTHER　COUNTRIES　OF　THE

EUROPEAN　CONTINENT　FOLLOWED　SUIT

AND　THE　NINETEENTH　CENTURY　WAS

FILLED　WITH　THE　RUMOUR　OF　MANY

WARS　OF　INDEPENDENCE





IT　will　serve　no　good　purpose　to　say　‘‘if　only　the　Congress

of　Vienna　had　done　such　and　such　a　thing　instead　of　taking

such　and　such　a　course；　the　history　of　Europe　in　the　nineteenth

century　would　have　been　different。''　The　Congress　of　Vienna

was　a　gathering　of　men　who　had　just　passed　through　a　great

revolution　and　through　twenty　years　of　terrible　and　almost

continuous　warfare。　They　came　together　for　the　purpose　of

giving　Europe　that　‘‘peace　and　stability''　which　they　thought

that　the　people　needed　and　wanted。　They　were　what　we　call

reactionaries。　They　sincerely　believed　in　the　inability　of　the

mass　of　the　people　to　rule　themselves。　They　re…arranged　the

map　of　Europe　in　such　a　way　as　seemed　to　promise　the　greatest

possibility　of　a　lasting　success。　They　failed；　but　not　through

any　premeditated　wickedness　on　their　part。　They　were；　for　the

greater　part；　men　of　the　old　school　who　remembered　the　happier

days　of　their　quiet　youth　and　ardently　wished　a　return　of　that

blessed　period。　They　failed　to　recognise　the　strong　hold　which

many　of　the　revolutionary　principles　had　gained　upon　the　people

of　the　European　continent。　That　was　a　misfortune　but

hardly　a　sin。　But　one　of　the　things　which　the　French　Revolution

had　taught　not　only　Europe　but　America　as　well；　was　the

right　of　people　to　their　own　‘‘nationality。''



Napoleon；　who　respected　nothing　and　nobody；　was　utterly

ruthless　in　his　dealing　with　national　and　patriotic　aspirations。

But　the　early　revolutionary　generals　had　proclaimed　the　new

doctrine　that　‘‘nationality　was　not　a　matter　of　political

frontiers　or　round　skulls　and　broad　noses；　but　a　matter　of　the

heart　and　soul。''　While　they　were　teaching　the　French　children

the　greatness　of　the　French　nation；　they　encouraged　Spaniards

and　Hollanders　and　Italians　to　do　the　same　thing。　Soon

these　people；　who　all　shared　Rousseau's　belief　in　the　superior

virtues　of　Original　Man；　began　to　dig　into　their　past　and　found；

buried　beneath　the　ruins　of　the　feudal　system；　the　bones　of　the

mighty　races　of　which　they　supposed　themselves　the　feeble

descendants。



The　first　half　of　the　nineteenth　century　was　the　era　of　the

great　historical　discoveries。　Everywhere　historians　were　busy

publishing　mediaeval　charters　and　early　mediaeval　chronicles

and　in　every　country　the　result　was　a　new　pride　in　the　old

fatherland。　A　great　deal　of　this　sentiment　was　based　upon　the

wrong　interpretation　of　historical　facts。　But　in　practical　politics；

it　does　not　matter　what　is　true；　but　everything　depends

upon　what　the　people　believe　to　be　true。　And　in　most　countries

both　the　kings　and　their　subjects　firmly　believed　in　the　glory

and　fame　of　their　ancestors。



The　Congress　of　Vienna　was　not　inclined　to　be　sentimental。

Their　Excellencies　divided　the　map　of　Europe　according　to　the

best　interests　of　half　a　dozen　dynasties　and　put　‘‘national

aspirations''　upon　the　Index；　or　list　of　forbidden　books；　together

with　all　other　dangerous　‘‘French　doctrines。''



But　history　is　no　respecter　of　Congresses。　For　some　reason

or　other　（it　may　be　an　historical　law；　which　thus　far　has

escaped　the　attention　of　the　scholars）　‘‘nations''　seemed　to　be

necessary　for　the　orderly　development　of　human　society　and

the　attempt　to　stem　this　tide　was　quite　as　unsuccessful　as　the

Metternichian　effort　to　prevent　people　from　thinking。



Curiously　enough　the　first　trouble　began　in　a　very　distant

part　of　the　world；　in　South　America。　The　Spanish　colonies

of　that　continent　had　been　enjoying　a　period　of　relative　independence

during　the　many　years　of　the　great　Napoleonic　wars。

They　had　even　remained　faithful　to　their　king　when　he　was

taken　prisoner　by　the　French　Emperor　and　they　had　refused

to　recognise　Joseph　Bonaparte；　who　had　in　the　year　1808　been

made　King　of　Spain　by　order　of　his　brother。



Indeed；　the　only　part　of　America　to　get　very　much　upset

by　the　Revolution　was　the　island　of　Haiti；　the　Espagnola　of

Columbus'　first　trip。　Here　in　the　year　1791　the　French　Convention；

in　a　sudden　outburst　of　love　and　human　brotherhood；

had　bestowed　upon　their　black　brethren　all　the　privileges　hitherto

enjoyed　by　their　white　masters。　Just　as　suddenly　they　had

repented　of　this　step；　but　the　attempt　to　undo　the　original

promise　led　to　many　years　of　terrible　warfare　between　General

Leclerc；　the　brother…in…law　of　Napoleon；　and　Toussaint　l'Ouverture；

the　negro　chieftain。　In　the　year　1801；　Toussaint　was

asked　to　visit　Leclerc　and　discuss　terms　of　peace。　He　received

the　solemn　promise　that　he　would　not　be　molested。　He　trusted

his　white　adversaries；　was　put　on　board　a　ship　and　shortly

afterwards　died　in　a　French　prison。　But　the　negroes　gained

their　independence　all　the　same　and　founded　a　Republic。

Incidentally　they　were　of　great　help　to　the　first　great　South

American　patriot　in　his　efforts　to　deliver　his　native　country

from　the　Spanish　yoke。



Simon　Bolivar；　a　native　of　Caracas　in　Venezuela；　born　in

the　year　1783；　had　been　educated　in　Spain；　had　visited　Paris

where　he　had　seen　the　Revolutionary　government　at　work；　had

lived　for　a　while　in　the　United　States　and　had　returned　to　his

native　land　where　the　widespread　discontent　against　Spain；

the　mother　country；　was　beginning　to　take　a　definite　form。

In　the　year　1811；　Venezuela　declared　its　independence　and

Bolivar　became　one　of　the　revolutionary　generals。　Within

two　months；　the　rebels　were　defeated　and　Bolivar　fled。



For　the　next　five　years　he　was　the　leader　of　an　apparently

lost　cause。　He　sacrificed　all　his　wealth　and　he　would　not　have

been　able　to　begin　his　final　and　successful　expedition　without

the　support　of　the　President　of　Haiti。　Thereafter　the　revolt

spread　all　over　South　America　and　soon　it　appeared　that　Spain

was　not　able　to　suppress　the　rebellion　unaided。　She　asked　for

the　support　of　the　Holy　Alliance。



This　step　greatly　worried　England。　The　British　shippers

had　succeeded　the　Dutch　as　the　Common　Carriers　of　the　world

and　they　expected　to　reap　heavy　profits　from　a　declaration　of

independence　on　the　part　of　all　South　America。　They　had

hopes　that　the　United　States　o？America　would　interfere　but

the　Senate　had　no　such　plans　and　in　the　House；　too；　there　were

many　voices　which　declared　that　Spain　ought　to　be　given　a

free　hand。



Just　then；　there　was　a　change　of　ministers　in　England。

The　Whigs　went　out　and　the　Tories　came　in。　George　Canning

became　secretary　of　State。　He　dropped　a　hint　that　England

would　gladly　back　up　the　American　government　with　all　the

might　of　her　fleet；　if　said　government　would　declare　its

disapproval　of　the　plans　of　the　Holy　Alliance　in　regard　to　the

rebellious　colonies　of　the　southern　continent。　President　Monroe

thereupon；　on　the　2nd　of　December　of　the　year　1823；　addressed

Congress　and　stated　that：　‘‘America　would　consider

any　attempt　on　the　part　of　the　allied　powers　to　extend　their

system　to　any　portion　of　this　western　hemisphere　as　dangerous

to　our　peace　and　safety；''　and　gave　warning　that　‘‘the　American

government　would　consider　such　action　on　the　part　of　the

Holy　Alliance　as　a　manifestation　of　an　unfriendly　disposition

toward　the　United　States。''　Four　weeks　later；　the　text　of　the

‘‘