the story of mankind-第73部分

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of　tolerance　took　hold　of　my　intolerant　self。　Later　I　discovered

Anatole　France　and　my　first　experience　with　the　English

language　came　about　through　an　accidental　encounter　with

Thackeray's　‘‘Henry　Esmond；''　a　story　which　made　more　impression

upon　me　than　any　other　book　in　the　English　language。



If　I　had　been　born　in　a　pleasant　middle　western　city　I　probably

should　have　a　certain　affection　for　the　hymns　which　I　had

heard　in　my　childhood。　But　my　earliest　recollection　of　music

goes　back　to　the　afternoon　when　my　Mother　took　me　to　hear

nothing　less　than　a　Bach　fugue。　And　the　mathematical　perfection

of　the　great　Protestant　master　influenced　me　to　such

an　extent　that　I　cannot　hear　the　usual　hymns　of　our　prayer…

meetings　without　a　feeling　of　intense　agony　and　direct　pain。



Again；　if　I　had　been　born　in　Italy　and　had　been　warmed

by　the　sunshine　of　the　happy　valley　of　the　Arno；　I　might　love

many　colourful　and　sunny　pictures　which　now　leave　me　indifferent

because　I　got　my　first　artistic　impressions　in　a　country

where　the　rare　sun　beats　down　upon　the　rain…soaked　land　with

almost　cruel　brutality　and　throws　everything　into　violent　contrasts

of　dark　and　light。



I　state　these　few　facts　deliberately　that　you　may　know

the　personal　bias　of　the　man　who　wrote　this　history　and　may

understand　his　point…of…view。　The　bibliography　at　the　end　of

this　book；　which　represents　all　sorts　of　opinions　and　views；　will

allow　you　to　compare　my　ideas　with　those　of　other　people。

And　in　this　way；　you　will　be　able　to　reach　your　own　final

conclusions　with　a　greater　degree　of　fairness　than　would

otherwise　be　possible。



After　this　short　but　necessary　excursion；　we　return　to　the

history　of　the　last　fifty　years。　Many　things　happened　during

this　period　but　very　little　occurred　which　at　the　time　seemed

to　be　of　paramount　importance。　The　majority　of　the　greater

powers　ceased　to　be　mere　political　agencies　and　became　large

business　enterprises。　They　built　railroads。　They　founded　and

subsidized　steam…ship　lines　to　all　parts　of　the　world。　They

connected　their　different　possessions　with　telegraph　wires。

And　they　steadily　increased　their　holdings　in　other　continents。

Every　available　bit　of　African　or　Asiatic　territory　was　claimed

by　one　of　the　rival　powers。　France　became　a　colonial　nation

with　interests　in　Algiers　and　Madagascar　and　Annam　and

Tonkin　（in　eastern　Asia）。　Germany　claimed　parts　of　southwest

and　east　Africa；　built　settlements　in　Kameroon　on　the

west　coast　of　Africa　and　in　New　Guinea　and　many　of　the

islands　of　the　Pacific；　and　used　the　murder　of　a　few　missionaries

as　a　welcome　excuse　to　take　the　harbour　of　Kisochau　on　the

Yellow　Sea　in　China。　Italy　tried　her　luck　in　Abyssinia；　was

disastrously　defeated　by　the　soldiers　of　the　Negus；　and　consoled

herself　by　occupying　the　Turkish　possessions　in　Tripoli

in　northern　Africa。　Russia；　having　occupied　all　of　Siberia；

took　Port　Arthur　away　from　China。　Japan；　having　defeated

China　in　the　war　of　1895；　occupied　the　island　of　Formosa　and

in　the　year　1905　began　to　lay　claim　to　the　entire　empire　of

Corea。　In　the　year　1883　England；　the　largest　colonial　empire

the　world　has　ever　seen；　undertook　to　‘‘protect''　Egypt。　She

performed　this　task　most　efficiently　and　to　the　great　material

benefit　of　that　much　neglected　country；　which　ever　since　the

opening　of　the　Suez　canal　in　1868　had　been　threatened　with　a

foreign　invasion。　During　the　next　thirty　years　she　fought　a

number　of　colonial　wars　in　different　parts　of　the　world　and　in

1902　（after　three　years　of　bitter　fighting）　she　conquered　the

independent　Boer　republics　of　the　Transvaal　and　the　Orange

Free　State。　Meanwhile　she　had　encouraged　Cecil　Rhodes　to

lay　the　foundations　for　a　great　African　state；　which　reached

from　the　Cape　almost　to　the　mouth　of　the　Nile；　and　had　faithfully

picked　up　such　islands　or　provinces　as　had　been　left　without

a　European　owner。



The　shrewd　king　of　Belgium；　by　name　Leopold；　used

the　discoveries　of　Henry　Stanley　to　found　the　Congo　Free

State　in　the　year　1885。　Originally　this　gigantic　tropical　empire

was　an　‘‘absolute　monarchy。''　But　after　many　years　of

scandalous　mismanagement；　it　was　annexed　by　the　Belgian

people　who　made　it　a　colony　（in　the　year　1908）　and　abolished

the　terrible　abuses　which　had　been　tolerated　by　this　very

unscrupulous　Majesty；　who　cared　nothing　for　the　fate　of　the

natives　as　long　as　he　got　his　ivory　and　rubber。



As　for　the　United　States；　they　had　so　much　land　that　they

desired　no　further　territory。　But　the　terrible　misrule　of

Cuba；　one　of　the　last　of　the　Spanish　possessions　in　the　western

hemisphere；　practically　forced　the　Washington　government　to

take　action。　After　a　short　and　rather　uneventful　war；　the

Spaniards　were　driven　out　of　Cuba　and　Puerto　Rico　and　the

Philippines；　and　the　two　latter　became　colonies　of　the　United

States。



This　economic　development　of　the　world　was　perfectly

natural。　The　increasing　number　of　factories　in　England　and

France　and　Germany　needed　an　ever　increasing　amount　of　raw

materials　and　the　equally　increasing　number　of　European

workers　needed　an　ever　increasing　amount　of　food。　Everywhere

the　cry　was　for　more　and　for　richer　markets；　for　more

easily　accessible　coal　mines　and　iron　mines　and　rubber　plantations

and　oil…wells；　for　greater　supplies　of　wheat　and　grain。



The　purely　political　events　of　the　European　continent

dwindled　to　mere　insignificance　in　the　eyes　of　men　who　were

making　plans　for　steamboat　lines　on　Victoria　Nyanza　or

for　railroads　through　the　interior　of　Shantung。　They　knew

that　many　European　questions　still　remained　to　be　settled；　but

they　did　not　bother；　and　through　sheer　indifference　and　carelessness

they　bestowed　upon　their　descendants　a　terrible　inheritance

of　hate　and　misery。　For　untold　centuries　the　south…eastern

corner　of　Europe　had　been　the　scene　of　rebellion　and　bloodshed。

During　the　seventies　of　the　last　century　the　people　of

Serbia　and　Bulgaria　and　Montenegro　and　Roumania　were　once

more　trying　to　gain　their　freedom　and　the　Turks　（with　the

support　of　many　of　the　western　powers）；　were　trying　to　prevent

this。



After　a　period　of　particularly　atrocious　massacres　in　Bulgaria

in　the　year　1876；　the　Russian　people　lost　all　patience。

The　Government　was　forced　to　intervene　just　as　President　McKinley

was　obliged　to　go　to　Cuba　and　stop　the　shooting…squads

of　General　Weyler　in　Havana。　In　April　of　the　year　1877　the

Russian　armies　crossed　the　Danube；　stormed　the　Shipka　pass；

and　after　the　capture　of　Plevna；　marched　southward　until　they

reached　the　gates　of　Constantinople。　Turkey　appealed　for

help　to　England。　There　were　many　English　people　who　denounced

their　government　when　it　took　the　side　of　the　Sultan。

But　Disraeli　（who　had　just　made　Queen　Victoria　Empress　of

India　and　who　loved　the　picturesque　Turks　while　he　hated　the

Russians　who　were　brutally　cruel　to　the　Jewish　people　within

their　frontiers）　decided　to　interfere。　Russia　was　forced　to

conclude　the　peace　of　San　Stefano　（1878）　and　the　question　of

the　Balkans　was　left　to　a　Congress　which　convened　at　Berlin

in　June　and　July　of　the　same　year。



This　famous　conference　was　entirely　dominated　by　the　personality

of　Disraeli。　Even　Bismarck　feared　the　clever　old

man　with　his　well…oiled　curly　hair　and　his　supreme　arrogance；

tempered　by　a　cynical　sense　of　humor　and　a　marvellous　gift

for　flattery。　At　Berlin　the　British　prime…minister　carefully

watched　over　the　fate　of　his　friends　the　Turks。　Montenegro；

Serbia　and　Roumania　were　recognised　as　independent　kingdoms。

The　principality　of　Bulgaria　was　given　a　semi…independent

status　under　Prince　Alexander　of　Battenberg；　a

nephew　of　Tsar　Alexander　II。　But　none　of　those　countries

were　given　the　chance　to　develop　their　powers　and　their　resources

as　they　would　have　been　able　to　do；　had　England　been

less　anxious　about　the　fate　of　the　Sultan；　whose　domains　were

necessary　to　the　safety　of　the　British　Empire　as　a　bulwark

against　further　Russian　aggression。



To　make　matters　worse；　the　congress　allowed　Austria　to

take　Bosnia　and　Herzegovina　away　from　the　Turks　to　be

‘‘administered''　as　part　of　the　Habsburg　domains。　It　is　true

that　Austria　made　an　excellent　job　of　it。　The　neglected　provinces

were　as　well　managed　as　the　best　of　the　British　colonies；

and　that　is　saying　a　great　deal。　But　they　were　inhabited　by

many　Serbians。　In　older　days　they　had　been　part　of　the　great

Serbian　empire　of　Stephan　Dushan；　who　early　in　the　fourteenth

century　had　defended　western　Europe　against　the　invasions

of　the　Turks　and　whose　capital　of　Uskub　had　been　a

centre　of　civilisation　one　hundred　and　fifty　years　before　Columbus

discovered　the　new　lands　of　the　west。　The　Serbians　remem…

bered　their　ancient　glory　as　who　would　not？　They　resented

the　presence　of　the　Austrians　in　two　provinces；　which；　so　they

felt；　were　theirs　by　every　right　of　tradition。



And　it　was　in　Sarajevo；　the　capital　of　Bosnia；　that　the

archduke　Ferdinand；　heir　to　the　Austrian　throne；　was　murdered

on　June　28　of　the　year　1914。　The　assassin　was　a　Serbian

student　who　had　acted　from　purely　patriotic　motives。



But　the　blame　for　this　terrible　catastrophe　which　was　the

immediate；　though　not　the　only　cause　of　the　Great　World　War

did　not　lie　with　the　half…crazy　Serbian　boy　or　his　Austrian

victim。　It　must　be　traced　back　to　the　days　of　the　famous

Berlin　Conference　when　Europe　was　too　busy　building　a　material

civilisation　to　care　about　the　aspirations　and　the　dreams

of　a　forgotten　race　in　a　dreary　corner　of　the　old　Balkan

peninsula。







A　NEW　WORLD



THE　GREAT　WAR　WHICH　WAS　REALLY　THE

STRUGGLE　FOR　A　NEW　AND

BETTER　WORLD





THE　Marquis　de　Condorcet　was　one　of　the　noblest　characters

among　the　small　group　of　honest　enthusiasts　who　were

responsible　for　the　outbreak　of　the　great　French　Revolution。

He　had　devoted　his　life　to　the　cause　of　the　poor　and　the　unfortunate。

He　had　be