the story of mankind-第9部分

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‘‘That　is　all　very　well；''　you　will　say；　‘‘and　no　doubt　it　is　a

great　virtue　to　care　so　much　for　moderation　and　perfection；

but　why　should　the　Greeks　have　been　the　only　people　to　develop

this　quality　in　olden　times？''　For　an　answer　I　shall

point　to　the　way　in　which　the　Greeks　lived。



The　people　of　Egypt　or　Mesopotamia　had　been　the　‘‘subjects''

of　a　mysterious　Supreme　Ruler　who　lived　miles　and

miles　away　in　a　dark　palace　and　who　was　rarely　seen　by　the

masses　of　the　population。　The　Greeks　on　the　other　hand；

were　‘‘free　citizens''　of　a　hundred　independent　little　‘‘cities''

the　largest　of　which　counted　fewer　inhabitants　than　a　large

modern　village。　When　a　peasant　who　lived　in　Ur　said　that　he

was　a　Babylonian　he　meant　that　he　was　one　of　millions　of

other　people　who　paid　tribute　to　the　king　who　at　that　particular

moment　happened　to　be　master　of　western　Asia。　But　when

a　Greek　said　proudly　that　he　was　an　Athenian　or　a　Theban

he　spoke　of　a　small　town；　which　was　both　his　home　and　his

country　and　which　recognised　no　master　but　the　will　of　the

people　in　the　market…place。



To　the　Greek；　his　fatherland　was　the　place　where　he　was

born；　where　he　had　spent　his　earliest　years　playing　hide　and

seek　amidst　the　forbidden　rocks　of　the　Acropolis；　where　he　had

grown　into　manhood　with　a　thousand　other　boys　and　girls；

whose　nicknames　were　as　familiar　to　him　as　those　of　your　own

schoolmates。　His　Fatherland　was　the　holy　soil　where　his　father

and　mother　lay　buried。　It　was　the　small　house　within　the　high

city…walls　where　his　wife　and　children　lived　in　safety。　It　was

a　complete　world　which　covered　no　more　than　four　or　five

acres　of　rocky　land。　Don't　you　see　how　these　surroundings

must　have　influenced　a　man　in　everything　he　did　and　said　and

thought？　The　people　of　Babylon　and　Assyria　and　Egypt

had　been　part　of　a　vast　mob。　They　had　been　lost　in　the　multitude。

The　Greek　on　the　other　hand　had　never　lost　touch　with

his　immediate　surroundings。　He　never　ceased　to　be　part　of　a

little　town　where　everybody　knew　every　one　else。　He　felt

that　his　intelligent　neighbours　were　watching　him。　Whatever

he　did；　whether　he　wrote　plays　or　made　statues　out　of　marble

or　composed　songs；　he　remembered　that　his　efforts　were　going

to　be　judged　by　all　the　free…born　citizens　of　his　home…town　who

knew　about　such　things。　This　knowledge　forced　him　to　strive

after　perfection；　and　perfection；　as　he　had　been　taught　from

childhood；　was　not　possible　without　moderation。



In　this　hard　school；　the　Greeks　learned　to　excel　in　many

things。　They　created　new　forms　of　government　and　new　forms

of　literature　and　new　ideals　in　art　which　we　have　never　been

able　to　surpass。　They　performed　these　miracles　in　little　villages

that　covered　less　ground　than　four　or　five　modern　city

blocks。



And　look；　what　finally　happened！



In　the　fourth　century　before　our　era；　Alexander　of　Macedonia

conquered　the　world。　As　soon　as　he　had　done　with

fighting；　Alexander　decided　that　he　must　bestow　the　benefits

of　the　true　Greek　genius　upon　all　mankind。　He　took　it　away

from　the　little　cities　and　the　little　villages　and　tried　to　make

it　blossom　and　bear　fruit　amidst　the　vast　royal　residences　of

his　newly　acquired　Empire。　But　the　Greeks；　removed　from

the　familiar　sight　of　their　own　temples；　removed　from　the　well…

known　sounds　and　smells　of　their　own　crooked　streets；　at　once

lost　the　cheerful　joy　and　the　marvellous　sense　of　moderation

which　had　inspired　the　work　of　their　hands　and　brains　while

they　laboured　for　the　glory　of　their　old　city…states。　They　became

cheap　artisans；　content　with　second…rate　work。　The　day

the　little　city…states　of　old　Hellas　lost　their　independence　and

were　forced　to　become　part　of　a　big　nation；　the　old　Greek　spirit

died。　And　it　has　been　dead　ever　since。







GREEK　SELF…GOVERNMENT



THE　GREEKS　WERE　THE　FIRST　PEOPLE　TO

TRY　THE　DIFFICULT　EXPERIMENT　OF

SELF…GOVERNMENT





IN　the　beginning；　all　the　Greeks　had　been　equally　rich　and

equally　poor。　Every　man　had　owned　a　certain　number　of

cows　and　sheep。　His　mud…hut　had　been　his　castle。　He　had

been　free　to　come　and　go　as　he　wished。　Whenever　it　was　necessary

to　discuss　matters　of　public　importance；　all　the　citizens

had　gathered　in　the　market…place。　One　of　the　older　men　of　the

village　was　elected　chairman　and　it　was　his　duty　to　see　that

everybody　had　a　chance　to　express　his　views。　In　case　of　war；

a　particularly　energetic　and　self…confident　villager　was　chosen

commander…in…chief；　but　the　same　people　who　had　voluntarily

given　this　man　the　right　to　be　their　leader；　claimed　an　equal

right　to　deprive　him　of　his　job；　once　the　danger　had　been

averted。



But　gradually　the　village　had　grown　into　a　city。　Some

people　had　worked　hard　and　others　had　been　lazy。　A　few

had　been　unlucky　and　still　others　had　been　just　plain　dishonest

in　dealing　with　their　neighbours　and　had　gathered　wealth。

As　a　result；　the　city　no　longer　consisted　of　a　number　of　men

who　were　equally　well…off。　On　the　contrary　it　was　inhabited

by　a　small　class　of　very　rich　people　and　a　large　class　of　very

poor　ones。



There　had　been　another　change。　The　old　commander…in…

chief　who　had　been　willingly　recognised　as　‘‘headman''　or

‘‘King''　because　he　knew　how　to　lead　his　men　to　victory；　had

disappeared　from　the　scene。　His　place　had　been　taken　by　the

noblesa　class　of　rich　people　who　during　the　course　of　time

had　got　hold　of　an　undue　share　of　the　farms　and　estates。



These　nobles　enjoyed　many　advantages　over　the　common

crowd　of　freemen。　They　were　able　to　buy　the　best　weapons

which　were　to　be　found　on　the　market　of　the　eastern　Mediterranean。

They　had　much　spare　time　in　which　they　could　prac…

tise　the　art　of　fighting。　They　lived　in　strongly　built　houses

and　they　could　hire　soldiers　to　fight　for　them。　They　were

constantly　quarrelling　among　each　other　to　decide　who　should

rule　the　city。　The　victorious　nobleman　then　assumed　a　sort　of

Kingship　over　all　his　neighbours　and　governed　the　town　until

he　in　turn　was　killed　or　driven　away　by　still　another　ambitious

nobleman。



Such　a　King；　by　the　grace　of　his　soldiers；　was　called　a

‘‘Tyrant''　and　during　the　seventh　and　sixth　centuries　before

our　era　every　Greek　city　was　for　a　time　ruled　by　such　Tyrants；

many　of　whom；　by　the　way；　happened　to　be　exceedingly　capa…


ble　men。　But　in　the　long　run；　this　state　of　affairs　became

unbearable。　Then　attempts　were　made　to　bring　about　reforms

and　out　of　these　reforms　grew　the　first　democratic　government

of　which　the　world　has　a　record。



It　was　early　in　the　seventh　century　that　the　people　of

Athens　decided　to　do　some　housecleaning　and　give　the　large

number　of　freemen　once　more　a　voice　in　the　government　as

they　were　supposed　to　have　had　in　the　days　of　their　Achaean

ancestors。　They　asked　a　man　by　the　name　of　Draco　to　provide

them　with　a　set　of　laws　that　would　protect　the　poor　against

the　aggressions　of　the　rich。　Draco　set　to　work。　Unfortunately

he　was　a　professional　lawyer　and　very　much　out　of　touch

with　ordinary　life。　In　his　eyes　a　crime　was　a　crime　and　when

he　had　finished　his　code；　the　people　of　Athens　discovered　that

these　Draconian　laws　were　so　severe　that　they　could　not

possibly　be　put　into　effect。　There　would　not　have　been　rope

enough　to　hang　all　the　criminals　under　their　new　system　of

jurisprudence　which　made　the　stealing　of　an　apple　a　capital

offence。



The　Athenians　looked　about　for　a　more　humane　reformer。

At　last　they　found　some　one　who　could　do　that　sort　of　thing

better　than　anybody　else。　His　name　was　Solon。　He　belonged

to　a　noble　family　and　he　had　travelled　all　over　the　world　and

had　studied　the　forms　of　government　of　many　other　countries。

After　a　careful　study　of　the　subject；　Solon　gave　Athens　a　set

of　laws　which　bore　testimony　to　that　wonderful　principle　of

moderation　which　was　part　of　the　Greek　character。　He　tried

to　improve　the　condition　of　the　peasant　without　however　destroying

the　prosperity　of　the　nobles　who　were　（or　rather　who

could　be）　of　such　great　service　to　the　state　as　soldiers。　To　protect

the　poorer　classes　against　abuse　on　the　part　of　the　judges

（who　were　always　elected　from　the　class　of　the　nobles　because

they　received　no　salary）　Solon　made　a　provision　whereby　a

citizen　with　a　grievance　had　the　right　to　state　his　case　before

a　jury　of　thirty　of　his　fellow　Athenians。



Most　important　of　all；　Solon　forced　the　average　freeman

to　take　a　direct　and　personal　interest　in　the　affairs　of　the　city。

No　longer　could　he　stay　at　home　and　say　‘‘oh；　I　am　too　busy

today''　or　‘‘it　is　raining　and　I　had　better　stay　indoors。''　He

was　expected　to　do　his　share；　to　be　at　the　meeting　of　the　town

council；　and　carry　part　of　the　responsibility　for　the　safety　and

the　prosperity　of　the　state。



This　government　by　the　‘‘demos；''　the　people；　was　often　far

from　successful。　There　was　too　much　idle　talk。　There　were

too　many　hateful　and　spiteful　scenes　between　rivals　for　official

honor。　But　it　taught　the　Greek　people　to　be　independent　and

to　rely　upon　themselves　for　their　salvation　and　that　was　a　very

good　thing。







GREEK　LIFE



HOW　THE　GREEKS　LIVED





BUT　how；　you　will　ask；　did　the　ancient　Greeks　have　time

to　look　after　their　families　and　their　business　if　they　were

forever　running　to　the　market…place　to　discuss　affairs　of　state？

In　this　chapter　I　shall　tell　you。



In　all　matters　of　government；　the　Greek　democracy　recognised

only　one　class　of　citizensthe　freemen。　Every　Greek

city　was　composed　of　a　small　number　of　free　born　citizens；　a

large　number　of　slaves　and　a　sprinkling　of　foreigners。



At　rare　intervals　（usually　during　a　war；　when　men　were

needed　for　the　army）　the　Greeks　showed　themselves　willing　to

confer　the　rights　of　citizenship　upon　the　‘‘barbarians''　as　they

called　the　foreigners。　But　this　was　an　exception。　Citizenship

was　a　matter　of　birth。　You　were　an　Athenian　because　your

father　and　your　grandf