the age of invention-第4部分

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population　were　engaged　primarily　in　the　production　of　food；　an　occupation　which　today　engages　less　than　three　out　of　ten。　This　comparison；　however；　requires　some　qualification。　The　farmer　and　the　farmer's　wife　and　children　performed　many　tasks　which　are　now　done　in　factories。　The　successful　farmer　on　the　frontier　had　to　be　a　jack　of　many　trades。　Often　he　tanned　leather　and　made　shoes　for　his　family　and　harness　for　his　horses。　He　was　carpenter；　blacksmith；　cobbler；　and　often　boat…builder　and　fisherman　as　well。　His　wife　made　soap　and　candles；　spun　yarn　and　dyed　it；　wove　cloth　and　made　the　clothes　the　family　wore；　to　mention　only　a　few　of　the　tasks　of　the　women　of　the　eighteenth　century。

The　organization　of　industry；　however；　was　beginning。　Here　and　there　were　small　paper　mills；　glass　factories…though　many　houses　in　the　back　country　were　without　glass　windowspotteries；　and　iron　foundries　and　forges。　Capitalists；　in　some　places；　had　brought　together　a　few　handloom　weavers　to　make　cloth　for　sale；　and　the　famous　shoemakers　of　Massachusetts　commonly　worked　in　groups。

The　mineral　resources　of　the　United　States　were　practically　unknown。　The　country　seems　to　have　produced　iron　enough　for　its　simple　needs；　some　coal；　copper；　lead；　gold；　silver；　and　sulphur。　But　we　may　say　that　mining　was　hardly　practiced　at　all。

The　fisheries　and　the　shipyards　were　great　sources　of　wealth；　especially　for　New　England。　The　cod　fishers　numbered　several　hundred　vessels　and　the　whalers　about　forty。　Thousands　of　citizens　living　along　the　seashore　and　the　rivers　fished　more　or　less　to　add　to　the　local　food　supply。　The　deep…sea　fishermen　exported　a　part　of　their　catch；　dried　and　salted。　Yankee　vessels　sailed　to　all　ports　of　the　world　and　carried　the　greater　part　of　the　foreign　commerce　of　the　United　States。　Flour；　tobacco；　rice；　wheat；　corn；　dried　fish；　potash；　indigo；　and　staves　were　the　principal　exports。　Great　Britain　was　the　best　customer；　with　the　French　West　Indies　next；　and　then　the　British　West　Indies。　The　principal　imports　came　from　the　same　countries。　Imports　and　exports　practically　balanced　each　other；　at　about　twenty　million　dollars　annually；　or　about　five　dollars　a　head。　The　great　merchants　owned　ships　and　many　of　them；　such　as　John　Hancock　of　Boston；　and　Stephen　Girard　of　Philadelphia；　had　grown　very　rich。

Inland　transportation　depended　on　horses　and　oxen　or　boats。　There　were　few　good　roads；　sometimes　none　at　all　save　bridle　paths　and　trails。　The　settlers　along　the　river　valleys　used　boats　almost　entirely。　Stage…coaches　made　the　journey　from　New　York　to　Boston　in　four　days　in　summer　and　in　six　in　winter。　Two　days　were　required　to　go　between　New　York　and　Philadelphia。　Forty　to　fifty　miles　a　day　was　the　speed　of　the　best　coaches；　provided　always　that　they　did　not　tumble　into　the　ditch。　In　many　parts　of　the　country　one　must　needs　travel　on　horseback　or　on　foot。

Even　the　wealthiest　Americans　of　those　days　had　few　or　none　of　the　articles　which　we　regard　today　as　necessities　of　life。　The　houses　were　provided　with　openwhich；　however　cheerful；　did　not　keep　them　warmor　else　with　Franklin's　stoves。　To　strike　a　fire　one　must　have　the　flint　and　tinderbox；　for　matches　were　unknown　until　about　1830。　Candles　made　the　darkness　visible。　There　was　neither　plumbing　nor　running　water。　Food　was　cooked　in　the　ashes　or　over　an　open　fire。

The　farmer's　tools　were　no　less　crude　than　his　wife's。　His　plough　had　been　little　improved　since　the　days　of　Rameses。　He　sowed　his　wheat　by　hand；　cut　it　with　a　sickle；　flailed　it　out　upon　the　floor；　and　laboriously　winnowed　away　the　chaff。


In　that　same　year；　1790；　came　a　great　boon　and　encouragement　to　inventors；　the　first　Federal　Patent　Act；　passed　by　Congress　on　the　10th　of　April。　Every　State　had　its　own　separate　patent　laws　or　regulations；　as　an　inheritance　from　colonial　days；　but　the　Fathers　of　the　Constitution　had　wisely　provided　that　this　function　of　government　should　be　exercised　by　the　nation。*　The　Patent　Act；　however；　was　for　a　time　unpopular；　and　some　States　granted　monopolies；　particularly　of　transportation；　until　they　were　forbidden　to　do　so　by　judicial　decision。

*　The　Constitution　（Article　1；　Section　8；　Clause　8）　empowers　Congress：　〃To　promote　the　Progress　of　Science　and　useful　Arts；　by　securing　for　limited　Times　to　Authors　and　Inventors　the　exclusive　Right　to　their　respective　Writings　and　Discoveries。〃


The　first　Patent　Act　provided　that　an　examining　board；　consisting　of　the　Secretary　of　State；　the　Secretary　of　War；　and　the　Attorney…General；　or　any　two　of　them；　might　grant　a　patent　for　fourteen　years；　if　they　deemed　the　invention　useful　and　important。　The　patent　itself　was　to　be　engrossed　and　signed　by　the　President；　the　Secretary　of　State；　and　the　Attorney…General。　And　the　cost　was　to　be　three　dollars　and　seventy　cents；　plus　the　cost　of　copying　the　specifications　at　ten　cents　a　sheet。

The　first　inventor　to　avail　himself　of　the　advantages　of　the　new　Patent　Act　was　Samuel　Hopkins　of　Vermont；　who　received　a　patent　on　the　31st　of　July　for　an　improved　method　of　〃Making　Pot　and　Pearl　Ashes。〃　The　world　knows　nothing　of　this　Samuel　Hopkins；　but　the　potash　industry；　which　was　evidently　on　his　mind；　was　quite　important　in　his　day。　Potash；　that　is；　crude　potassium　carbonate；　useful　in　making　soap　and　in　the　manufacture　of　glass；　was　made　by　leaching　wood　ashes　and　boiling　down　the　lye。　To　produce　a　ton　of　potash；　the　trees　on　an　acre　of　ground　would　be　cut　down　and　burned；　the　ashes　leached；　and　the　lye　evaporated　in　great　iron　kettles。　A　ton　of　potash　was　worth　about　twenty…five　dollars。　Nothing　could　show　more　plainly　the　relative　value　of　money　and　human　labor　in　those　early　times。

Two　more　patents　were　issued　during　the　year　1790。　The　second　went　to　Joseph　S。　Sampson　of　Boston　for　a　method　of　making　candles；　and　the　third　to　Oliver　Evans；　of　whom　we　shall　learn　more　presently；　for　an　improvement　in　manufacturing　flour　and　meal。　The　fourth　patent　was　granted　in　1791　to　Francis　Baily　of　Philadelphia　for　making　punches　for　types。　Next　Aaron　Putnam　of　Medford；　Massachusetts；　thought　that　he　could　improve　methods　of　distilling；　and　John　Stone　of　Concord；　Massachusetts；　offered　a　new　method　of　driving　piles　for　bridges。　And　a　versatile　inventor；　Samuel　Mulliken　of　Philadelphia；　received　four　patents　in　one　day　for　threshing　grain；　cutting　and　polishing　marble；　raising　a　nap　on　cloth；　and　breaking　hemp。

Then　came　improvements　in　making　nails；　in　making　bedsteads；　in　the　manufacture　of　boats；　and　for　propelling　boats　by　cattle。　On　August　26；　1791；　James　Rumsey；　John　Stevens；　and　John　Fitch　（all　three　will　appear　again　in　this　narrative）　took　out　patents　on　means　of　propelling　boats。　On　the　same　day　Nathan　Read　received　one　on　a　process　for　distilling　alcohol。

More　than　fifty　patents　were　granted　under　the　Patent　Act　of　1790；　and　mechanical　devices　were　coming　in　so　thick　and　fast　that　the　department　heads　apparently　found　it　inconvenient　to　hear　applications。　So　the　Act　of　1790　was　repealed。　The　second　Patent　Act　（1793）　provided　that　a　patent　should　be　granted　as　a　matter　of　routine　to　any　one　who　swore　to　the　originality　of　his　device　and　paid　the　sum　of　thirty　dollars　as　a　fee。　No　one　except　a　citizen；　however；　could　receive　a　patent。　This　act；　with　some　amendments；　remained　in　force　until　1836；　when　the　present　Patent　Office　was　organized　with　a　rigorous　and　intricate　system　for　examination　of　all　claims　in　order　to　prevent　interference。　Protection　of　the　property　rights　of　inventors　has　been　from　the　beginning　of　the　nation　a　definite　American　policy；　and　to　this　policy　may　be　ascribed　innumerable　inventions　which　have　contributed　to　the　greatness　of　American　industry　and　multiplied　the　world's　comforts　and　conveniences。

Under　the　second　Patent　Act　came　the　most　important　invention　yet　offered；　an　invention　which　was　to　affect　generations　then　unborn。　This　was　a　machine　for　cleaning　cotton　and　it　was　offered　by　a　young　Yankee　schoolmaster；　temporarily　sojourning　in　the　South。



CHAPTER　II。　ELI　WHITNEY　AND　THE　COTTON　GIN

The　cotton　industry　is　one　of　the　most　ancient。　One　or　more　of　the　many　species　of　the　cotton　plant　is　indigenous　to　four　continents；　Asia；　Africa；　and　the　Americas；　and　the　manufacture　of　the　fiber　into　yarn　and　cloth　seems　to　have　developed　independently　in　each　of　them。　We　find　mention　of　cotton　in　India　fifteen　hundred　years　before　Christ。　The　East　Indians；　with　only　the　crudest　machinery；　spun　yarn　and　wove　cloth　as　diaphanous　as　the　best　appliances　of　the　present　day　have　been　able　to　produce。

Alexander　the　Great　introduced　the　〃vegetable　wool〃　into　Europe。　The　fable　of　the　〃vegetable　lamb　of　Tartary〃　persisted　almost　down　to　modern　times。　The　Moors　cultivated　cotton　in　Spain　on　an　extensive　scale；　but　after　their　expulsion　the　industry　languished。　The　East　India　Company　imported　cotton　fabrics　into　England　early　in　the　seventeenth　century；　and　these　fabrics　made　their　way　in　spite　of　the　bitter　opposition　of　the　woolen　interests；　which　were　at　times　strong　enough　to　have　the　use　of　cotton　cloth　prohibited　by　law。　But　when　the　Manchester　spinners　took　up　the　manufacture　of　cotton；　the　fight　was　won。　The　Manchester　spinners；　however；　used　linen　for　their　warp　threads；　for　without　machinery　they　could　not　spin　threads　sufficiently　strong　from　the　short…fibered　Indian　cotton。

In　the　New　World　the　Spanish　explorers　found　cotton　and　cotton　fabrics　in　use　everywhere。　Columbus；　Cortes；　Pizarro；　Magellan；　and　others　speak　of　the　various　uses　to　which　the　fiber　was　put；　and　admired　the　striped　awnings　and　the　colored　mantles　made　by　the　natives。　It　seems　probable　that　cotton　was　in　use　in　the　New　World　quite　as　early　as　in　India。

The　first　English　settlers　in　America　found　little　or　no　cotton　among　the　natives。　But　they　soon　began　to　import　the　fiber　from　the　West　Indies；　whence　came　also　the　plant　itself　into　the　congenial　soil　and　climate　of　the　Southern　colonies。　During　the　colonial　period；　however；　cotton　never　became　the　leading　crop；　hardly　an　important　crop。　Cotton　could　be　grown　profitably　only　where　there　was　an　abundant　supply　of　exceedingly　cheap　labor；　and　labor　in　America；　white　or　black；　was　never　and　could　never　be　as　cheap　as　in　India。　American　slaves　could　b