criminal psychology-第106部分

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Foolishness　in　action　is　rawnesstrue　rawness　is　always　foolish　and　can　not　be　mistaken。　

Here；　again；　we　draw　the　extraordinary　conclusion　that　we　criminalists；　as　in　all　other　cases；　must　not　take　man　to　be　what　he　seems　most　of　the　time；　but　what　he　shows　himself　as；　in　exceptional　cases。　The　worst　man　may　have　done　something　absolutely　good；　the　greatest　liar　may　today　tell　the　truth；　and　the　simpleton　may　today　act　wisely。　We　are　not　concerned　with　man　as　such；　what　is　important　for　us　is　his　immediate　self…expression。　The　rest　of　his　nature　is　a　matter　of　judgment。


Topic　2。　ISOLATED　INFLUENCES。

Section　91。　（a）　Habit。

Habit　may　be　of　considerable　importance　in　criminal　law。　We　have；　first　of　all；　to　know　how　far　we　ourselves　are　influenced　in　our　thinking　and　acting　by　habit；　then　it　is　important；　in　judging　the　testimony　of　witnesses；　to　know　whether　and　how　far　the　witness　behaved　according　to　his　habits。　For　by　means　of　this　knowledge　we　may　be　able　to　see　the　likelihood　of　many　a　thing　that　might　have　otherwise　seemed　improbable。　Finally；　we　may　be　able　properly　to　estimate　many　an　excuse　offered　by　a　defendant　through　considering　his　habits；　especially　when　we　are　dealing　with　events　that　are　supposed　to　have　occurred　under　stupefaction；　absolute　intoxication；　distraction；　etc。＇1＇　Hume；　indeed；　has　assigned　to　habit　the　maximum　of　significance；　his　whole　system　depends　upon　the　use　of　habit　as　a　principle　of　explanation。　He　shows　that　the　essence　of　all　our　inferences　with　regard　to　facts　relates　to　the　principle　of　causation；　and　the　foundation　of　all　our　beliefs　in　causation　is　experience；　while　the　foundation　of　inference　from　experience　is　habit。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　it　is　strange　how　often　an　obscure　event　becomes　suddenly　clear　by　an　inquiry　into　the　possibility　of　habit　as　its　cause。　Even　everything　we　call　fashion；　custom；　presumption；　is　at　bottom　nothing　more　than　habit；　or　explicable　by　habit。　All　new　fashions　in　clothes；　in　usages；　etc。；　are　disliked　until　one　becomes　habituated　to　them；　and　custom　and　morality　must　attach　themselves　to　the　iron　law　of　habit。　What　would　my　grandmother　have　said　of　a　woman　whom　she　might　have　seen　happily　bicycling　through　the　streets！　How　every　German　citizen　crosses　himself　when　he　sees　French　sea…bathing！　And　if　we　had　no　idea　of　a　ball　among　the　four　hundred　what　should　we　say　if　we　heard　that　in　the　evening　men　meet　half…naked　women；　embrace　them　vigorously；　pull　them　　round；　and　bob　and　stamp　through　the　hall　with　disgusting　noise　until　they　must　stop；　pouring　perspiration；　gasping　for　breath？　But　because　we　are　accustomed　to　it；　we　are　satisfied　with　it。　To　see　what　influence　habit　has　on　our　views　of　this　subject；　just　close　your　ears　tightly　at　some　ball　and　watch　the　dancers。　As　soon　as　you　stop　hearing　the　music　you　think　you　are　in　a　lunatic　asylum。　Indeed；　you　do　not　need　to　select　such　a　really　foolish　case。　Helmholtz　suggests　looking　at　a　man　walking　in　the　distance；　through　the　large　end　of　a　telescope。　What　extraordinary　humping　and　rocking　of　the　body　the　passer…by　exhibits！　There　are　any　number　of　such　examples；　and　if　we　inquire　concerning　the　permissibility　of　certain　events　we　simply　carry　the　question　of　habit　into　the　field　of　conduct。　Hunting　harmless　animals；　vivisection；　the　execution　of　back…breaking　tricks；　ballets；　and　numerous　other　things；　will　seem　to　us　shocking；　inconceivable；　disgusting；　if　we　are　not　habituated　to　them。　What　here　requires　thought　is　the　fact　that　we　criminalists　often　judge　situations　we　do　not　know。　When　the　peasant；　the　unskilled　laborer；　or　the　craftsman；　does　anything；　we　know　only　superficially　the　deed's　nature　and　real　status。　We　have；　as　a　rule；　no　knowledge　of　the　perpetrator's　habits；　and　when　we　regard　some　one　of　his　actions　as　most　reprehensible；quarrel　or　insult　or　maltreatment　of　his　wife　or　childrenhe　responds　to　us　with　a　most　astounded　expression。　He　is　not　habituated　to　anything　else；　and　we　do　not　teach　him　a　better　way　by　punishing　him。


＇1＇　H。　Gross's　Archiv。　II；　140；　III；　350；　VII；　155；　XIII；　161；　XIV；　189。


Questions　of　this　sort；　however；　deal　with　the　generality　of　human　nature；　and　do　not　directly　concern　us。　But　directly　we　are　required　to　make　a　correct　judgment　of　testimony　concerning　habit；　they　will　help　us　to　more　just　interpretations　and　will　reduce　the　number　of　crass　contradictions。　This　is　so　because　many　an　assertion　will　seem　probable　when　the　witness　shows　that　the　thing　described　was　habitual。　No　definite　boundary　can　be　drawn　between　skill　and　habit；　and　we　may；　perhaps；　say　rightly；　that　skill　is　possible　only　where　habit　exists；　and　habit　is　present　where　a　certain　amount　of　skill　has　been　attained。　Skill；　generally；　is　the　capacity　of　speedy　habituation。　But　a　distinction　must　be　drawn。　Habit　makes　actions　easy。　Habituation　makes　them　necessary。　This　is　most　obvious　in　cases　of　bodily　skill；riding；　swimming；　skating；　cycling；　everything　in　which　habit　and　skill　can　not　be　separated；　and　with　regard　to　which　we　can　not　see　why　we　and　other　untrained　people　can　not　immediately　do　the　same　thing。　And　when　we　can　do　it；　we　do　it　without　thinking；　as　if　half　asleep。　Such　action　is　not　　skilled；　but　habitual；　i。　e。；　a　part　of　it　is　determined　by　the　body　itself　without　the　especial　guidance　of　the　mind。

We　find　the　hunter's　power　to　see　so　many　animals；　tracks；　etc。；　inconceivable。　When；　e。　g。；　we　have　once　properly　mastered　the　principle　of　a　quite　complicated　crystal；　we　cannot　understand　why　we　had　not　done　so　before。　We　feel　in　the　same　way　with　regard　to　an　unclear　drawing；　a　new　road；　some　bodily　activity；　etc。　Anybody　who　has　not　acquired　the　habit　might　have　to　take　all　day　to　learn　the　business　of　dressing　and　undressing　himself。　And　how　difficult　it　is　just　to　walk；　a　thing　we　do　unconsciously；　is　confirmed　by　the　mechanic　who　wants　to　construct　a　walking　figure。

That　all　people　are　equally　subject　to　habit；　is　not　asserted。　The　thing　is　a　matter　of　disposition；　in　the　sense　of　the　recurrence　of　past　ideas　or　tendencies。　We　must　assume　that　an　inclination　evinced　by　idea　A　makes　possible　ideas　a'；　a''；　a'''。　Habits　may　develop　according　to　these　dispositions；　but　the　knowledge　of　the　conditions　of　this　development　we　do　not　yet　possess。　Nevertheless；　we　tend　to　assume　that　the　famous　historian　X　and　the　famous　Countess　Y　will　not　get　the　habit　of　drinking　or　opium…smoking　but　in　this　case　our　assumption　is　deduced　from　their　circumstances；　and　not　from　their　personality。　Hence；　it　is　difficult　to　say　with　certainty　that　a　person　is　incapable　of　acquiring　this　or　that　habit。　So　that　it　is　of　importance；　when　the　question　arises；　to　discover　the　existence　of　implied　habits　whenever　these　are　asserted　in　the　face　of　apparently　contradictory　conditions。　There　is　a　certain　presumption　for　the　correctness　of　the　implication；　when；　e。　g。；　the　practiced　physician　asserts　that　he　counted　the　pulse　for　a　minute　without　a　watch；　or　when　the　merchant　accurately　estimates　the　weight　of　goods　within　a　few　grams；　etc。　But　it　will　be　just　as　well　to　test　the　assertion；　since；　without　this　test；　the　possibility　of　error　is　still　great。

Somebody　asserts；　e。　g。；　that　he　had　been　distracted　and　had　paid　no　attention　to　what　two　persons　close　to　him　had　said。　Suddenly　he　began　to　take　notice　and　found　himself　able　to　recapitulate　all　their　remarks。　Or　again；　a　musician；　who　is　almost　altogether　deaf；　says　that　he　is　so　accustomed　to　music　that　in　spite　of　his　deafness　he　is　able　to　hear　the　smallest　discord　in　the　orchestra。　Yet　again；　we　hear　of　insignificant；　hardly　controllable　habits　that　become　accidentally　significant　in　a　criminal　case。　Thus　the　crime　of　arson　was　observed　by　the　firebrand's　neighbor；　who　could　have　seen　the　action　through　the　window；　only　if　he　had　leaned　far　out　　of　it。　When　he　was　asked　what　he　wanted　to　see　in　the　cold　winter　night；　he　replied；　that　he　had　the　habit　daily　of　spitting　out　of　the　window　just　before　going　to　bed。　Another；　who　was　surprised　in　his　sleep　by　an　entering　thief；　had　heavily　wounded　the　latter　with　a　great　brush；　‘‘because　he　happened　to　have　had　it　in　his　hand。''　The　happening　was　due　to　his　habit　of　being　unable　to　fall　asleep　without　a　brush　in　his　hand。　If　such　habits　are　demonstrable　facts　they　serve　to　explain　otherwise　unexplainable　events。

They　are；　however；　the　more　difficult　to　establish；　because　they　occur　mainly　in　isolated　peopleold　bachelors　and　old　maids　so　that　their　confirmation　by　others　is　rare。　On　the　other　hand；　every　one　of　us　knows　habits　of　his　own　or　of　his　friends　which　would　not　be　believed　when　cited；　and　which　would　be　very　difficult　to　prove　when　the　need　arose。　The　influence　of　habit　on　indifferent　matters　can　be　shown　by　numerous　examples。　There　is　Kant's　citation；　that　if　anybody　happened　to　send　his　doctor　nine　ducats　the　latter　would　have　to　believe　that　the　messenger　had　stolen　the　tenth。　If　you　give　a　bride　most　beautiful　linen；　but　only　eleven　pieces；　she　will　weep。　Give　her　thirteen　pieces；　and　she　will　certainly　throw　one　of　them　away。　If　you　keep　these　deep…rooted　habits　in　mind；　you　may　possibly　say　that　they　must　have　had　a　definite；　determinative；　and　alternative　influence　on　body　and　mind。　For　example；　from　time　immemorial　mankind　has　taken　medications　at　definite　intervals；　e。　g。；　every　hour；　every　two　hours；　etc。；　hence；　a　powder　ordered　every　seventy…seven　minutes　will　cause　us　complete　surprise。　But　by　what　authority　does　the　body　require　exactly　these　quantities　of　time　or　weight？　Or　again；　our　lectures；　private　or　public；　so　and　so　much　time？　Of　course　it　would　be　inconvenient　if　professors　lectured　only　52　minutes；　yet　how　much　difficulty　must　not　the　mind　have　met　in　becoming　habituated　to　exactly　60　minutes　of　instruction！　This　habituation　has　been　going　on　for　a　long　time；　and　now　children；　like　nations；　regard　the　new　in　the　light　of　the　old；　so　that　the　old；　especially　when　it　is　fixed　by　language；　becomes　the　mind's　instrument　for　the　control　of　the　new。　Indeed　we　often　stick　linguistically　to　old　things；　although　they　have　been　long　superannuated。

There　is　the　characteristic　state　of　mind　which　might　be　called　the　refraction　of　an　idea