criminal psychology-第113部分

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To　all　these　illusions　may　be　added　those　which　are　connected　with　movement　or　are　exposed　by　movement。　During　the　movement　of　certain　bodies　we　can　distinguish　their　form　only　under　definite　conditions。　As　their　movement　increases　they　seem　shorter　in　the　direction　of　movement　and　as　it　decreases　they　seem　broader　than　normally。　An　express　train　with　many　cars　seems　shorter　when　moving　directly　near　us；　and　rows　of　marching　men　seem　longer。　The　illusion　is　most　powerful　when　we　look　through　a　stationary　small　opening。　The　same　thing　occurs　when　we　move　quickly　past　bodies；　for　this　makes　them　seem　very　short　as　we　go　by。

Of　such　cases　sense…illusion　does　not　constitute　an　adequate　explanation；　it　must　be　supplemented　by　a　consideration　of　certain　inferences　which　are；　in　most　instances；　comparatively　complex。＇1＇　We　know；　e。　g。；　that　objects　which　appear　to　us　unexpectedly　at　night；　particularly　on　dark；　cloudy　nights；　seem　inordinately　magnified。　The　process　is　here　an　exceedingly　complex　one。　Suppose　I　see；　some　cloudy　night；　unexpectedly　close　to　me　a　horse　whose　environment；　because　of　the　fog；　appears　indistinct。　Now　I　know　from　experience　that　objects　which　appear　from　indistinct　environments　are　as　a　rule　considerably　distant。　I　know；　further；　that　considerably　distant　objects　seem　much　smaller；　and　hence　I　must　assume　that　the　horse；　which　in　spite　of　its　imaginary　distance　appears　to　retain　its　natural　size；　is　really　larger　than　it　is。　The　train　of　thought　is　as　follows：　‘‘I　see　the　horse　indistinctly。　It　seems　to　be　far　away。　It　is；　in　spite　of　its　distance；　of　great　size。　How　enormous　it　must　be　when　it　is　close　to　me！''　Of　course　these　inferences　are　neither　slow　nor　conscious。　They　occur　in　reflection　with　lightning…like　swiftness　and　make　no　difference　to　the　certainty　of　the　instantaneous　judgment。　Hence　it　is　frequently　very　difficult　to　discover　the　process　and　the　mistake　it　contains。


＇1＇　W。　Larden：　Optical　Illusion。　Nature　LXIII；　372　（1901）。


If；　however；　the　observer　finds　an　inexplicable　hiatus　in　an　event　he　happens　to　notice；　he　finds　it　strange　because　unintelligible。　In　this　way　is　created　that　notion　of　strangeness　which　often　plays　so　great　a　rle　in　the　examination　of　witnesses。　Hence　when　under　otherwise　uncomfortable　conditions；　I　see　a　horse　run　without　hearing　the　beat　of　his　hoofs；　when　I　see　trees　sway　without　feeling　any　storm；　when　I　meet　a　man　who；　in　spite　of　the　moonlight；　has　no　shadow；　I　feel　them　to　be　very　strange　because　something　is　lacking　　in　their　logical　development　as　events。　Now；　from　the　moment　a　thing　becomes　strange　to　an　individual　his　perceptions　are　no　longer　reliable；　it　is　doubtful　whether　he　knows　what　he　has　really　experienced　before　his　world　became　strange　to　him。　Add　to　this　that　few　people　are　unwilling　to　confess　that　they　felt　ill　at　ease；　that　perhaps　they　do　not　even　know　it；＇1＇　and　you　get　the　complicated　substitution　of　sensory　illusions　and　uncanny　sensation；　the　one　causing　the　other；　the　other　magnifying　the　one；　and　so　on　until　the　whole　affair　is　turned　into　something　quite　unrecognizable。　So　we　find　ourselves　in　the　presence　of　one　of　the　inexplicable　situations　of　the　reality　of　which　we　are　assured　by　the　most　trustworthy　individuals。


＇1＇　H。　Gross：　Lehrbuch　fr　den　Ausforschungsdienst　der　Gendarmerie。


To　magnify　this　phenomenon；　we　need　only　think　of　a　few　slightly　abnormal　cases。　It　has　already　been　indicated　that　there　are　many　such　which　are　not　diseased；　and　further；　that　many　diseased　cases　occur　which　are　not　known　as　such；　at　least；　as　being　so　much　so　as　to　make　the　judge　call　in　the　doctor。　This　is　the　more　likely　because　there　are　frequently；　if　I　may　say　so；　localized　diseases　which　do　not　exhibit　any　extraordinary　symptoms；　at　least　to　laymen；　and　hence　offer　no　reason　for　calling　in　experts。　If　we　set　aside　all　real　diseases　which　are　connected　with　optical　illusions　as　not　concerning　us；　there　are　still　left　instances　enough。　For　example；　any　medical　text…book　will　tell　you　that　morphine　fiends　and　victims　of　the　cocaine　habit　have　very　strong　tendencies　to　optical　illusions　and　are　often　tortured　by　them。　If　the　disease　is　sufficiently　advanced；　such　subjects　will　be　recognized　by　the　physician　at　a　single　glance。　But　the　layman　can　not　make　this　immediate　diagnosis。　He　will　get　the　impression　that　he　is　dealing　with　a　very　nervous　invalid；　but　not　with　one　who　is　subject　to　optical　illusions。　So；　we　rarely　hear　from　a　witness　that　he　knows　such　people；　and　certainly　not　that　he　is　one　himself。　A　very　notable　oculist；　Himly；　was　the　first　to　have　made　the　observation　that　in　the　diseased　excitability　of　the　retina　every　color　is　a　tone　higher。　Luminous　black　looks　blue；　blue　looks　violet；　violet　looks　red；　red　looks　yellow。　Torpor　of　the　retina　inverts　the　substitution。

Dietz＇2＇　tells　of　color…illusions　following　upon　insignificant　indigestion；　Foder　of　hysterics　who　see　everything　reversed；　and　Hoppe＇3＇　says；　‘‘If　the　order　of　the　rods　and　cones　of　the　retina　is　somewhat　disturbed　by　an　inflammatory　touch；　the　equilibrium　of　vision　is


＇2＇　ber　die　Quelle　der　Sinnestuschungen。　Magazin　fr　Seelenkunde　VIII。

＇3＇　Erklrung　der　Sinnestuschungen。　Wurzburg　1888。

　altered　and　changes　in　size；　in　form；　or　appearance　occur。''　Naturally　the　criminalist　can　not　perceive　slight　indigestion；　weak　hysteria；　or　an　inflamed　area　in　the　retina　when　he　is　examining　witnesses；　yet　false　observations　like　those　described　may　have　a　definite　influence　upon　the　decision　in　a　case。

If　such　abnormal　occasions　are　lacking　the　reasons　for　optical　illusions　are　of　another　nature。　As　a　rule　optical　illusions　occur　when　there　is　an　interruption　in　the　communication　between　the　retina；　the　sense　of　movement；　and　the　sense　of　touch；　or　when　we　are　prevented　from　reducing　the　changes　of　the　retinal　image　to　the　movement　of　our　body　or　of　our　eyes。　This　reduction　goes　on　so　unconsciously　that　we　see　the　idea　of　the　object　and　its　condition　as　a　unit。　Again；　it　is　indubitable　that　the　movement　of　the　body　seems　quicker　when　we　observe　it　with　a　fixed　glance　than　when　we　follow　it　with　our　eyes。　The　difference　may　be　so　significant　that　it　is　often　worth　while；　when　much　depends　on　determining　the　speed　of　some　act　in　a　criminal　case；　to　ask　how　the　thing　was　looked　at。

Fechner　has　made　a　far…reaching　examination　of　the　old　familiar　fact　that　things　on　the　ground　appear　to　run　when　we　ride　by　them　rapidly。＇1＇　This　fact　may　be　compared　with　the　other；　that　when　you　look　directly　into　swift…moving　water　from　a　low　bridge；　the　latter　seems　all　of　a　sudden　to　be　swimming　rapidly　up　stream；　though　the　water　does　not　appear　to　stand　still。　Here　some　unknown　factor　is　at　work　and　may　exercise　considerable　influence　on　many　other　phenomena　without　our　being　able　to　observe　the　results。　To　this　class　may　be　added　the　extraordinary　phenomenon　that　from　the　train　objects　easily　seem　too　near　and　hence　appear　smaller　than　they　are。　It　may　be；　however；　that　the　converse　is　true　and　objects　appear　smaller；　or　at　least　shorter；　and　that　inasmuch　as　we　are　in　the　habit　of　attributing　the　diminution　of　size　in　objects　to　their　distance；　we　tax　the　latter　as　false。　So　much　is　certainthat　whenever　we　ourselves　move　quickly　we　make　false　judgments　of　size；　distance；　and　even　color。　The　last　may　be　due　to　the　fact　that　during　a　quick　passage；　colors　may　so　compose　themselves；　that　green　and　red　become　white；　and　blue　and　yellow；　green；　etc。　I　believe　that　all　these　illusions　are　increasing　in　connection　with　the　spread　of　bicycling；　inasmuch　as　many　observations　are　made　from　the　fleeting　wheel　and　its　motion　tends　to　increase　the　illusions　considerably。　Concerning　the　differences　in　movement　Stricker＇2＇


＇1＇　Elemente　die　Psychophysik。　Leipzig　1889。

＇2＇　Studien　ber　die　Sprachvorstellung。　Vienna　1880。

　says：　‘‘If　I　lie　on　my　back　and　see　a　bird　fly　in　the　uniformly　blue　heaven；　I　recognize　the　movement　although　I　have　no　object　with　which　to　compare　it。　This　can　not　be　explained　by　the　variety　of　points　on　the　retina　which　are　affected；　for　when　the　bird　pauses　and　I　turn　my　eye；　I　know　that　it　is　not　moving。''　The　last　argument　is　not　correct。　If　the　bird　is　sitting　on　a　branch　I　know；　in　spite　of　all　my　occipital　movement；　that　it　is　quiet；　but　only　because　I　perceive　and　observe　the　bird's　immobility。　If；　however；　I　lie　on　my　back　like　Stricker　and　see　above　me　a　bird　of　the　class　that；　so　to　speak；　swim　motionless　in　the　air　for　minutes　at　a　time；　and　if　then　I　turn　my　head；　I　can　not　tell　when　the　bird　begins　to　move。　Here　then　we　have　no　exception　to　the　general　rule　and　can　always　say　that　we　are　speaking　of　movement　optically　perceived　when　the　rays　issuing　from　any　body　progressively　touch　various　points　on　the　retina。　And　since　this　occurs　when　we　are　in　motion　as　well　as　when　the　object　is　in　motion　it　happens　that　we　can　not　locate　the　movement；　we　cannot　say　whether　it　be　in　us　or　in　the　object。

Of　course；　the　possibility　that　fanciful　images　may　appear　during　movement　is　familiar。　If　I　sit　quietly　in　the　forest　and　at　some　distance　see　a　stone　or　a　piece　of　wood　or　a　little　heap　of　dried　leaves；　etc。；　it　may　be　that；　because　of　some　illusion；　I　take　it　to　be　a　rolled　up　hedgehog；　and　it　may　happen　that　I　am　so　convinced　of　the　nature　of　the　object　while　I　am　looking　at　it　that　I　see　how　the　hedgehog　stretches　itself；　sticks　out　its　paws　and　makes　other　movements。　I　remember　one　winter　when；　because　of　some　delay；　a　commission　on　which　I　was　serving　had　failed　to　reach　a　village　not　far　from　the　capital。　We　had　gone　to　investigate　a　murder　case　and　had　found　the　body　frozen　stiff。　The　oven　in　the　room　was　heated　and　the　grave…digger　placed　the　stiff　body　near　the　oven　in　order　to　thaw　it　out。　We　at　this　time　were　examining　the　place。　After　a　while　I　was　instructed　by　the　examining　justice　to　see　about　the　condition　of　the　corpse；　and　much　to　my　disgust；　I　found　it　sitting　near　the　oven；　bent　over。　It　had　thawed　out　and　collapsed。　During　the　subsequent　obduction　I　saw　most　clearly　how　the　corpse　made　all　kinds　of　movements；　and　even　after　the　section；　during　the　dictation　of　the　protoco