criminal psychology-第115部分

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f　size　in　proper　proportion。　But　on　the　photograph　we　can　not　apply　this　‘‘natural''　standard　because　it　is　not　given　in　nature；　and　we　blame　the　camera。

If；　in　a　criminal　case；　we　are　dealing　with　a　description　of　size；　and　it　is　given　as　it　is　known　from　experience；　not　as　it　really　appears；　then　if　experience　has　deceived　us；　our　testimony　is　also　wrong；　although　we　pretend　to　have　testified　on　the　basis　of　direct　sense…　perception。

The　matter　of　after…images；　probably　because　of　their　short　duration；　is　of　no　criminalistic　importance。　I　did　once　believe　that　they　might　be　of　considerable　influence　on　the　perception　of　witnesses；　but　I　have　not　succeeded　in　discovering　a　single　example　in　which　this　influence　is　perceptible。

On　the　other　hand；　the　phenomenon　of　irradiation；　the　appearance　of　dark　bodies　as　covered　with　rays　of　light　by　adjacent　luminosities；　　is　of　importance。　This　phenomenon　is　well…known；　as　are　Helmholtz's　and　Plateau's　explanations　of　it。　But　it　is　not　sufficiently　applied。　One　needs　only　to　set　a　white　square　upon　the　blackest　possible　ground　and　at　the　same　time　a　similar　black　square　of　equal　size　on　a　white　ground；　and　then　to　place　them　under　a　high　light；　to　perceive　how　much　larger　the　white　square　appears　to　be。　That　such　phenomena　often　occur　in　nature　need　not　be　expounded。　Whenever　we　are　dealing　with　questions　of　size　it　is　indubitably　necessary　to　consider　the　color　of　the　object　and　its　environment　with　respect　to　its　background　and　to　the　resulting　irradiation。


Section　100。　（3）　_Auditory　Illusions_。

From　the　point　of　view　of　the　criminalist；　auditory　illusions　are　hardly　less　significant　than　visual　illusions；　the　more　so；　as　incorrect　hearing　is　much　more　frequent　than　incorrect　seeing。　This　is　due　to　the　greater　similarity　of　tones　to　each　other；　and　this　similarity　is　due　to　the　fact　that　sound　has　only　one　dimension；　while　vision　involves　not　only　three　but　also　color。　Of　course；　between　the　booming　of　cannons　and　the　rustling　of　wings　there　are　more　differences　than　one；　but　the　most　various　phenomena　of　tones　may　be　said　to　vary　only　in　degree。　For　purposes　of　comparison　moreover；　we　can　make　use　only　of　a　class　of　auditory　images　on　the　same　plane；　e。　g。；　human　voices；　etc。　Real　acoustic　illusions　are　closely　connected　with　auditory　misapprehension　and　a　distinction　between　these　two　can　not　be　rigorously　drawn。　A　misapprehension　may；　as　a　rule；　be　indicated　by　almost　any　external　condition；　like　the　relations　of　pitch；　echo；　repetition；　false　coincidence　of　waves　of　sound；　etc。　Under　such　circumstances　there　may　arise　real　illusions。

The　study　of　auditory　illusions　is　rendered　especially　difficult　by　the　rarity　of　their　repetition；　which　makes　it　impossible　reliably　to　exclude　accidents　and　mistakes　in　observation。　Only　two　phenomena　are　susceptible　of　accurate　and　sufficient　study。　For　three　summers　a　man　used　to　ride　through　the　long　street　in　which　I　live。　The　man　used　to　sell　ice　and　would　announce　himself　by　crying　out；　‘‘Frozen；''　with　the　accent　on　the　Fro。　This　word　was　distinctly　audible；　but　if　the　man　came　to　a　definite　place　in　the　street；　there　were　also　audible　the　words　‘‘Oh；　my。''　If　he　rode　on　further　the　expression　became　confused　and　gradually　turned　into　the　correct；　‘‘Frozen。''　I　observed　this　daily；　got　a　number　of　others　to　do　so；　without　telling　them　of　the　illusion；　but　each　heard　　the　same　thing　in　spite　of　the　distinct　difference　between　‘‘frozen；''　and　‘‘oh；　my。''

I　made　a　similar　observation　at　a　bicycle　school。　As　is　known；　beginners　are　able　frequently　to　ride　by　themselves　but　need　help　in　mounting　and　dismounting　their　machines。　To　do　so　they　call　a　teacher　by　crying　out：　‘‘Herr　Maier。''　At　a　certain　place　this　sound　would　seem　distinctly　to　be　‘‘mamma。''　I　was　at　first　much　surprised　to　hear　people　of　advanced　age　cry　cheerfully；　‘‘mamma。''　Later　I　discovered　what　the　word　really　was　and　acquaintances　whose　attention　I　called　to　the　matter　confirmed　my　observation。　Such　things　are　not　indifferent；　they　show　that　really　very　different　sounds　may　be　mistaken　for　one　another；　that　the　test　of　misunderstandings　may　often　lead　to　false　results；　since　only　during　the　test　of　an　illusion　are　both　auditor　and　speaker　accurately　in　the　same　position　as　before。　Finally；　these　things　show　that　the　whole　business　of　correcting　some　false　auditions　is　very　difficult。　Yet　this　work　of　correction　may　be　assumed　to　be　much　more　easy　with　respect　to　hearing　than　with　respect　to　seeing。　If；　e。　g。；　it　is　asserted　that　the　revolver　has　been　seen　somewhere；　and　if　it　has　been　known　that　the　sight　was　impossible；　it　becomes　just　as　impossible；　almost；　to　determine　what　the　object　seen　really　was。　In　the　rarest　cases　only　will　it　be　something　altogether　similar；　e。　g。；　a　pistol；　most　of　the　time　it　will　be　an　object　which　could　not　be　inferred　from　no　matter　what　combinations。　In　hearing；　on　the　contrary；　if　once　it　is　determined　that　there　has　been　a　false　audition；　the　work　of　placing　it；　though　difficult；　need　not　be　unprofitable。　This　work　is　often　compulsory　upon　the　criminalist　who　receives　protocols　which　have　not　been　read　aloud；　and　in　which　mistakes　of　hearing　and　dictation　have　been　made。　Such　mistakes　are　considerably　disturbing；　and　if　the　case　is　important　their　source　and　status　must　be　inferred。　This　may　almost　always　be　done。　Of　course；　strange；　badly　heard　proper　names　can　not　be　corrected；　but　other　things　can。

As　regards　the　general　treatment　of　auditory　illusions；　it　is　necessary；　first　of　all；　to　consider　their　many　and　significant　differences。　In　the　first　place；　there　are　the　varieties　of　good　hearing。　That　normal　and　abnormal　hearers　vary　in　degree　of　power　is　well　known。　There　are　also　several　special　conditions；　causing；　e。　g。；　the　so　called　hyper…auditive　who　hear　more　acutely　than　normal　people。　Of　course；　such　assertions　as　those　which　cite　people　who　can　hear　the　noise　of　sulphur　rubbed　on　the　poles　of　quartz　crystals　and　so　on　are　incorrect；　but　it　is　certain　that　a　little　attention　will　reveal　a　　surprising　number　of　people　whose　hearing　is　far　acuter　than　that　of　normal　individuals。　Apart　from　children；　the　class　is　made　up　of　musicians；　of　young　girls；　and　of　very　nervous；　excitable；　and　sickly　persons。　The　musicians　in　fact　have　become　so　because　of　their　ears；　the　young　girls　hear　well　largely　because　of　their　delicate　organization　and　the　very　fine　construction　of　their　ears；　and　the　nervous　people　because　of　their　sensibility　to　the　pain　involved　in　loud　noises。　Many　differences　of　perception　among　witnesses　are　to　be　explained　by　differences　of　audition；　and　the　reality　of　apparent　impossibilities　in　hearing　must　not　be　denied　but　must　be　tested　under　proper　conditions。　One　of　these　conditions　is　location。　The　difference　between　hearing　things　in　the　noisy　day　and　in　the　quiet　night；　in　the　roar　of　the　city；　or　in　the　quiet　of　the　mountains；　is　familiar。　The　influence　of　resonance　and　pitch；　echo　and　absorption　of　tones；　i。　e。；　the　location　of　the　sound；　is　of　great　importance。　Finally；　it　must　not　be　forgotten　that　people's　ability　to　hear　varies　with　the　weather。　Colds　reduce　the　power；　and　not　a　few　people　are　influenced　by　temperature；　atmospheric　pressure；　etc。　These　considerations　show　the　degree　in　which　auditory　illusions　can　be　of　importance　even　in　tests　of　their　nature　and　existence。　They　show　above　all　that　the　same　object　of　comparison　under　the　same　circumstances　must　be　used　in　every　test。　Otherwise　much　confusion　inevitably　results。

The　presence　of　auditory　illusions　in　diseases；　fever；　hysteria；　nervousness；　alcoholism　and　its　associates；　mental　disturbances；　hypermia；　diseases　of　the　ear；　etc。；　is　well　known；　but　concerns　us　only　as　pointing　to　the　necessity　of　calling　in　the　physician　immediately。　They　have　their　definite　characteristics　and　rarely　leave　the　layman　in　doubt　of　his　duty　in　that　direction。　The　great　difficulty　comes　in　dealing　with　diseases　or　apparent　diseases　while　it　is　still　impossible　to　know　of　their　existence；　or　where　the　pain　is　of　such　character　that　the　layman　does　not　know　of　its　presence　and　thus　has　no　ground　for　consulting　the　doctor。　For　example；　it　is　well　known　that　a　large　amount　of　ear　wax　in　the　aural　passage　may　cause　all　sorts　of　ringing　and　sighing　in　the　ear；　and　may　even　produce　real　hallucinations。　Yet　a　person　having　an　abnormal　amount　of　ear　wax　may　be　otherwise　absolutely　sound。　How　is　the　need　of　a　physician　to　be　guessed　in　such　a　case？　Again；　the　perforation　of　the　drum；　especially　when　it　follows　a　catarrh；　may　cause　a　definite　auditory　illusion　with　regard　to　the　sound　of　voices；　or　the　illusion　may　be　effected　by　the　irritation　of　the　skin　in　the　ear　passage；　or　　by　anemia；　or　by　a　strong　carotid　pulse　and　a　distention　of　the　bloodvessels；　as　happens　in　alcoholism。　Many　people　become　abnormally　sensitive　to　sound　at　the　beginning　of　fevers。　Women　at　the　time　of　their　climacterium　hear　all　kinds　of　voices。　Inasmuch　as　this　soon　stops；　the　abnormality　and　incorrectness　of　their　audition　is　hard　to　establish。　Childbirth；　too；　makes　a　difference。　Old；　otherwise　conscientious　midwives　claim　to　have　heard　unborn　children　breathe　and　cry。

Examples　of　this　sort　of　thing　are　innumerable　and　they　teach　that　whenever　any　questionable　assertion　is　made　about　a　thing　heard　the　doctor　must　be　called　in　to　determine　whether　the　witness　heard　it　under　abnormal；　though　not　diseased　conditions。　Again；　merely　accidental　or　habitual　general　excitability　tends　to　intensify　all　sounds；　and　whether　the　witness　under　consideration　was　in　such　condition　can　be　determined　only　by　the　expert　physician。

The　illusions　of　hearing　which　completely　normal　people　are　subject　to　are　the　most　difficult　of　all。　Their　number　and　frequency　is　variously　estimated。　The　physician　has　nothing　to　do　with　them。　The　physicist；　the　acoustician　and　physiologist　do　not　care　about　the　criminalist's　needs　in　this　matter；　and　we　ourselves　rarely　have　time　and　opportunity　to　deal　with　it。　As　a　result　our　information　is　very　small；　and　no　one　can　say　how　much　is　still　undiscovered。　One　of　my　friends　has　called　my　attention　to　the　fact　that　when　the　beats　of　the　cl