criminal psychology-第116部分

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ll　undiscovered。　One　of　my　friends　has　called　my　attention　to　the　fact　that　when　the　beats　of　the　clock　are　counted　during　sleepiness；　one　too　many　is　regularly　counted。　I　tested　this　observation　and　my　experience　confirmed　it。　If；　now；　we　consider　how　frequently　the　determination　of　time　makes　the　whole　difference　in　a　criminal　case　and　how　easily　it　is　possible　to　mistake　a　whole　hour；　we　can　get　some　notion　of　the　importance　of　this　illusion。　Its　explanation　is　difficult　and　it　may　be　merely　a　single　instance　of　a　whole　series　of　unknown　auditory　illusions　resting　on　the　same　basis。　Another　and　similar　phenomenon　is　the　‘‘double　beat　of　the　hammer。''　If　you　have　an　assistant　strike　the　table　with　a　hammer　while　you　hold　both　ears　with　your　fingers　and　then　open　them　half　a　second　or　a　second　after　the　blow；　you　hear　the　blow　again。　And　if　you　open　and　shut　your　ears　quickly　you　can　hear　the　blow　several　times。　This　is　explained　through　the　fact　that　a　number　of　reflections　of　the　sound　occur　in　the　room；　and　that　these　are　perceivable　only　by　the　unfatigued　ear。　The　explanation　is　unsatisfactory　because　the　experiment　is　sometimes　successful　in　the　open。　Taken　in　itself；　this　matter　seems　very　theoretical　and　without　practical　value。　But　this　kind　of　action　may　occur　　automatically。　It　is　well　known　that　swallowing　closes　the　Eustachian　tubes　for　a　moment；　especially　if　done　when　lying　down。　Now；　if　this　occurs　during　a　blow；　a　shot；　etc。；　the　sound　must　be　heard　twice。　Again；　it　may　easily　happen　that　because　of　the　noise　a　man　wakes　up　half　asleep　and；　frightened；　swallows　the　collected　saliva；　then　this　accident；　which　in　itself　seems　unimportant；　may　lead　to　very　significant　testimony。　Such　occurrences　are　not　infrequent。

The　intensity　of　a　sound　already　heard　may　be　of　considerable　influence。　Certain　experimenters　have　indicated　the　remarkable　character　of　slightly　intensive　effects　of　sound。　If　you　hold　a　watch　so　far　from　the　ear　as　to　hear　it　clearly　but　weakly；　the　sound　decreases　until　finally　it　is　not　heard　at　all；　and　after　awhile　it　is　again　heard；　etc。　This　may　lead　to　hearing　distinct　sounds　made　up　of　many　tones；　and　need　not　evince　any　great　illusion　with　regard　to　the　ticking　of　a　watch。　But　the　thing　may　occur　also　in　connection　with　more　powerful　and　more　distant　sounds；　e。　g。；　the　murmur　of　a　brook；　the　rush　of　a　train；　the　pounding　in　a　distant　factory。　Noises　far　removed　are　influenced　by　reflections　of　sound；　waves　of　air；　etc。；　and　it　is　possible　that　all　kinds　of　things　may　be　heard　in　a　completely　monotonous　noise。　This　can　be　easily　learned　by　listening　to　the　soft　murmur　of　a　distant　brook　at　night。　Given　the　disposition　and　supposing　the　existence　of　the　brook　unknown；　it　is　easy　to　hear　in　its　monotonous　murmur；　human　voices；　sighs；　shrieks；　etc。

Another　remarkable　observation　shows　that　in　the　dark　very　distinct　things　are　heard　during　the　playing　of　delicate　instruments；　such　as　mouth…organs。　The　humming　approaches　and　withdraws；　then　it　comes　on　various　sides；　and　finally　one　has　the　feeling　that　the　whole　room　is　full　of　humming　and　winging　insects。　And　this　may　go　on　indefinitely。　There　is　a　large　collection　of　reasons　for　this　reduplication　of　monotonous　sounds。　Everybody　knows　the　accord　of　the　olian　harp　which　consists　of　identical　notes；　and　the　melodies　which　seem　to　lie　in　the　pounding　of　the　train　on　the　rails。　This　can　become　especially　clear　when　one　is　half　asleep。　If　ever　thinking　begins　to　be　ousted　by　slumber；　the　rhythmic　pound　begins　to　dominate　consciousness。　Then　the　rhythm　gets　its　appropriate　melody　which　becomes　progressively　more　intense；　and　if　one　grows　suddenly　wide　awake　one　wonders　why　the　clearly…heard　music　is　missing。　Similarly；　it　is　often　asserted　that　a　row　of　travelling　wild　swans　make　pleasant　chords；　although　each　swan　is　able　to　utter　　only　one　cry。　Difference　in　distance　and　alterations　in　the　air　cause　the　chords。

The　difficulties　in　distinguishing　the　intensity　or　weakness　of　a　sound　are　of　importance。　Fechner　learned　from　the　violinist　Wasilewski　that　he　observed　that　a　male　choir　of　four　hundred　voices　did　not　sound　essentially　louder　than　one　of　two　hundred。　At　the　same　time　one　clock　is　not　heard　at　a　great　distance；　a　hundred　clocks　are　heard。　One　locust　can　not　be　heard　eating；　when　1000　eat　they　are　heard；　hence　each　one　must　make　a　definite　noise。＇1＇　Early　authorities　have　already　indicated　how　difficult　it　is　to　distinguish　the　number　of　bells　ringing　together。　Even　musicians　will　often　take　two　or　three　to　be　five　or　six。

Certain　dispositions　make　some　difference　in　this　respect。　The　operating　physician　hears　the　low　groaning　of　the　patient　after　the　operation　without　having　heard　his　loud　cries　during　the　operation。　During　the　operation　the　physician　must　not　hear　anything　that　is　likely　to　disturb　his　work；　but　the　low　groan　has　simply　borne　in　upon　him。　The　sleeping　mother　often　is　deaf　to　considerable　noise；　but　wakes　up　immediately　when　her　child　draws　a　deeper　breath　than　usual。　Millers　and　factory　hands；　travellers；　etc。；　do　not　hear　the　pounding　of　their　various　habitual　environmental　noises；　but　they　perceive　the　slightest　call；　and　everybody　observes　the　considerable　murmur　of　the　world；　the　sum　of　all　distant　noises；　only　in　the　silence　of　the　night　that　misses　it。

Illusions　of　direction　of　sound　are　very　common。　It　is　said　that　even　animals　are　subject　to　them；　and　everybody　knows　how　few　human　beings　can　distinguish　the　source　and　direction　of　street　music；　a　rolling　wagon；　or　a　ringing　bell。　Even　when　long　practice　enables　one　to　determine　direction　with　correctness；　an　accidental　event；　perhaps　the　weather；　especial　sounds；　a　different　grouping　of　individuals　on　the　street；　may　result　in　serious　mistakes。　I　tried　to　learn　to　judge　from　my　office…desk　whether　the　ring　of　the　horse…　car　came　from　above　or　below。　I　succeeded　so　well　that　I　could　not　understand　how　it　was　difficult　not　to　learn　the　difference；　and　yet　I　failed　many　a　time　altogether　in　judgment。　The　reason　for　it　I　do　not　know。

All　these　enumerated　circumstances　must　show　how　very　uncertain　all　acoustic　perceptions　are；　and　how　little　they　may　be　trusted　if　they　are　not　carefully　tested　under　similar　conditions；　and　ifwhat　is　most　importantthey　are　not　isolated。　We　are　here　led　back


＇1＇　Max　Meyer：　Zur　Theorie　der　Geruschempfindungen。　Leipzig　1902。

　to　the　old　principle　that　every　observation　is　not　proof　but　means　of　proof；　and　that　it　may　be　trusted　only　when　it　is　confirmed　by　many　parallel　actions　which　are　really　consistent。　That　even　after　that　mistakes　are　possible；　is　true；　but　‘‘after　that''　is　when　we　have　done　all　that　lies　within　human　power。


Section　101。　（4）　_Illusions　of　Touch_。

The　high　standing　of　the　sense　of　touch　which　make　it　in　certain　directions　even　the　organ　of　control　of　the　sense　of　sight；　is　well　known；　and　Condillac's　historic　attempt　to　derive　all　the　senses　from　this　one　is　still　plausible。　If　what　is　seen　is　to　be　seen　accurately　there　is　automatic　resort　to　the　confirmatory　aid　of　the　sense　of　touch；　which　apprehends　what　the　eye　has　missed。　Hence　we　find　many　people　touching　things；　whose　vision　is　not　altogether　reliable　i。　e。；　people　of　considerable　age；　children　unpracticed　in　seeing；　an　uneducated　people　who　have　never　learned　to　see　quickly　and　comprehensively。　Moreover；　certain　things　can　be　determined　only　by　touching；　i。　e。；　the　fineness　of　papers；　cloth；　etc。；　the　sharpness　or　pointedness　of　instruments；　or　the　rawness　of　objects。　Even　when　we　pat　a　dog　kindly　we　do　so　partly　because　we　want　to　see　whether　his　skin　is　as　smooth　and　fine　as　the　eye　sees　it；　moreover；　we　want　to　test　the　visual　impression　by　that　of　touch。

But　important　and　reliable　as　the　sense　of　touch　is；　it　is　nevertheless　not　to　be　trusted　when　it　is　the　sole　instrument　of　perception。　We　must　never　depend　on　the　testimony　of　a　witness　based　entirely　on　perceptions　by　touch；　and　the　statements　of　a　wounded　person　concerning　the　time；　manner；　etc。；　of　his　wound　are　unreliable　unless　he　has　also　seen　what　he　has　felt。　We　know　that　most　knife　and　bullet　wounds；　i。　e。；　the　most　dangerous　ones；　are　felt；　in　the　first　instance；　as　not　very　powerful　blows。　Blows　on　the　extremities　are　not　felt　as　such；　but　rather　as　pain；　and　blows　on　the　head　are　regularly　estimated　in　terms　of　pain；　and　falsely　with　regard　to　their　strength。　If　they　were　powerful　enough　to　cause　unconsciousness　they　are　said　to　have　been　very　massive；　but　if　they　have　not　had　that　effect；　they　will　be　described　by　the　most　honest　of　witnesses　as　much　more　powerful　than　they　actually　were。　Concerning　the　location　of　a　wound　in　the　back；　in　the　side；　even　in　the　upper　arm；　the　wounded　person　can　give　only　general　indications；　and　if　he　correctly　indicates　the　seat　of　the　wound；　he　has　learned　it　later　but　did　not　know　it　when　it　occurred。　According　to　Helmholtz；　　practically　all　abdominal　sensations　are　attributed　to　the　anterior　abdominal　wall。　Now　such　matters　become　of　importance　when　an　individual　has　suffered　several　wounds　in　a　brawl　or　an　assault　and　wants　to　say　certainly　that　he　got　wound　A　when　X　appeared；　wound　B　when　Y　struck　at　him；　etc。　These　assertions　are　almost　all　false　because　the　victim　is　likely　to　identify　the　pain　of　the　moment　of　receiving　the　wound　with　its　later　painfulness。　If；　for　example；　an　individual　has　received　a　rather　long　but　shallow　knife　wound　and　a　deep　stab　in　the　back；　the　first　will　cause　him　very　considerable　burning　sensation；　the　latter　only　the　feeling　of　a　heavy　blow。　Later　on；　at　the　examination；　the　cut　has　healed　and　is　no　longer　painful；　the　dangerous　stab　which　may　have　reached　the　lung；　causes　pain　and　great　difficulty　in　breathing；　so　that　the　wounded　man　assigns　the　incidence　of　the　stab　to　the　painful　sensation　of　the　cut；　and　conversely。

Various　perceptions　of　victims　on　receiving　a　wound　are　remarkable；　and　I　have　persuaded　a　police　surgeon　of　considerable　learning　and　originality　to　collect　and　interpret　his　great　mass　of　material。　It　is　best　done　by　means　of　tabulation；　accurate　description　of　wounds　according　to　their　place；　size；　form；　and　significance；　the　statement　of　the