criminal psychology-第13部分

快捷操作: 按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页 按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页 按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部! 如果本书没有阅读完，想下次继续接着阅读，可使用上方 "收藏到我的浏览器" 功能 和 "加入书签" 功能！


making　a　mistake；　the　gain　in　truth　through　watchfulness　and　effort；　the　avoidance　of　error　through　attention。　In　this　way　the　most　useful　testimony　can　be　obtained　from　witnesses　who；　in　the　beginning；　showed　only　despairing　prospects。

Now；　if　one　is　already　himself　endowed　with　keen　interest　and　resolved　to　awaken　the　same　in　the　witnesses；　it　is　necessary　carefully　to　consider　the　method　of　so　doing　and　how　much　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　what　has　already　been　established；　or　merely　been　said　and　received　as　possibly　valuable。　On　the　one　hand　it　is　true　that　the　witness　can　be　roused　to　attention　and　to　more　certain　and　vigorous　responses　according　to　the　quantity　of　detail　told　him。＇1＇　On　the　other；　caution　and　other　considerations　warn　against　telling　an　unknown　witness；　whose　trustworthiness　is　not　ascertained；　delicate　and　important　matters。　It　is　especially　difficult　if　the　witness　is　to　be　told　of　presuppositions　and　combinations；　or　if　he　is　to　be　shown　how　the　case　would　alter　with　his　own　answer。　The　last　especially　has　the　effect　of　suggestion　and　must　occur　in　particular　and　in　general　at　those　times　alone　when　his　statement；

＇1＇　Slaughter：　The　Fluctuations　of　Attention。　Am。　Jour。　of　Psych。　XII；　313　（1901）。

　or　some　part　of　it；　is　apparently　of　small　importance　but　actually　of　much。　Often　this　importance　can　be　made　clear　to　the　witness　only　by　showing　him　that　the　difference　in　the　effect　of　his　testimony　is　pointed　out　to　him　because　when　he　sees　it　he　will　find　it　worth　while　to　exert　himself　and　to　consider　carefully　his　answer。　Any　one　of　us　may　remember　that　a　witness　who　was　ready　with　a　prompt；　and　to　him　an　indifferent　reply；　started　thinking　and　gave　an　essentially　different　answer；　even　contradictory　to　his　first；　when　the　meaning　and　the　effect　of　what　he　might　say　was　made　clear　to　him。

How　and　when　the　witness　is　to　be　told　things　there　is　no　rule　for。　The　wise　adjustment　between　saying　enough　to　awaken　interest　and　not　too　much　to　cause　danger　is　a　very　important　question　of　tact。　Only　one　certain　device　may　be　recommendedit　is　better　to　be　careful　with　a　witness　during　his　preliminary　examination　and　to　keep　back　what　is　known　or　suspected；　thus　the　attention　and　interest　of　the　witness　may　perhaps　be　stimulated。　If；　however；　it　is　believed　that　fuller　information　may　increase　and　intensify　the　important　factors　under　examination；　the　witness　is　to　be　recalled　later；　when　it　is　safe；　and　his　testimony　is；　under　the　new　conditions　of　interest；　to　be　corrected　and　rendered　more　useful。　In　this　case；　too；　the　key　to　success　lies　in　increase　of　effortbut　that　is　true　in　all　departments　of　law；　and　the　interest　of　a　witness　is　so　important　that　it　is　worth　the　effort。


Topic　III。　PHENOMENOLOGY：　STUDY　OF　THE　OUTWARD　EXPRESSION　OF　MENTAL　STATES。

Section　10。


Phenomenology　is　in　general　the　science　of　appearances。　In　our　usage　it　is　the　systematic　co…ordination　of　those　outer　symptoms　occasioned　by　inner　processes；　and　conversely；　the　inference　from　the　symptoms　to　them。　Broadly　construed；　this　may　be　taken　as　the　study　of　the　habits　and　whole　bearing　of　any　individual。　But　essentially　only　those　external　manifestations　can　be　considered　that　refer　back　to　definite　psychical　conditions；　so　that　our　phenomenology　may　be　defined　as　the　semiotic　of　normal　psychology。　This　science　is　legally　of　immense　importance；　but　has　not　yet　assumed　the　task　of　showing　how　unquestionable　inferences　may　be　drawn　from　an　uncounted　collection　of　outward　appearances　to　inner　processes。　In　addition；　observations　are　not　numerous　　enough；　far　from　accurate　enough；　and　psychological　research　not　advanced　enough。　What　dangerous　mistakes　premature　use　of　such　things　may　lead　to　is　evident　in　the　teaching　of　the　Italian　positivistic　school；　which　defines　itself　also　as　psychopathic　semiotic。　But　if　our　phenomenology　can　only　attempt　to　approximate　the　establishment　of　a　science　of　symptoms；　it　may　at　least　study　critically　the　customary　popular　inferences　from　such　symptoms　and　reduce　exaggerated　theories　concerning　the　value　of　individual　symptoms　to　a　point　of　explanation　and　proof。　It　might　seem　that　our　present　task　is　destructive；　but　it　will　be　an　achievement　if　we　can　show　the　way　to　later　development　of　this　science；　and　to　have　examined　and　set　aside　the　useless　material　already　to　hand。


Section　II。　（a）　General　External　Conditions。


‘‘Every　state　of　consciousness　has　its　physical　correlate；''　says　Helmholtz；＇1＇　and　this　proposition　contains　the　all　in　all　of　our　problem。　Every　mental　event　must　have　its　corresponding　physical　event＇2＇　in　some　form；　and　is　therefore　capable　of　being　sensed；　or　known　to　be　indicated　by　some　trace。　Identical　inner　states　do　not；　of　course；　invariably　have　identical　bodily　concomitants；　neither　in　all　individuals　alike；　nor　in　the　same　individual　at　different　times。　Modern　methods　of　generalization　so　invariably　involve　danger　and　incorrectness　that　one　can　not　be　too　cautious　in　this　matter。　If　generalization　were　permissible；　psychical　events　would　have　to　be　at　least　as　clear　as　physical　processes；　but　that　is　not　admissible　for　many　reasons。　First　of　all；　physical　concomitants　are　rarely　direct　and　unmeditated　expressions　of　a　psychical　instant　（e。　g。；　clenching　a　fist　in　threatening）。　Generally　they　stand　in　no　causal　relation；　so　that　explanations　drawn　from　physiological；　anatomical；　or　even　atavistic　conditions　are　only　approximate　and　hypothetical。　In　addition；　accidental　habits　and　inheritances　exercise　an　influence　which；　although　it　does　not　alter　the　expression；　has　a　moulding　effect　that　in　the　course　of　time　does　finally　so　recast　a　very　natural　expression　as　to　make　it　altogether　unintelligible。　The　phenomena；　moreover；　are　in　most　cases　personal；　so　that　each　individual　means　a　new　study。　Again　the　phenomena　rarely　remain　constant；　e。　g。：　we　call　a　thing　habit；

＇1＇　H。　L。　Helmholtz：　ber　die　Weebselwirkungen　der　Naturkrfte。　Knigsberg　1854。

＇2＇　A。　Lehmann：　Die　krperliche　usserungen　psychologischer　Zustnde。　Leipsig　Pt。　I；　1899。　Pt。　II；　1901。

　we　say；　‘‘He　has　the　habit　of　clutching　his　chin　when　he　is　embarrassed；''　but　that　such　habits　change　is　well　known。　Furthermore；　purely　physiological　conditions　operate　in　many　directions；　（such　as　blushing；　trembling；　laughter；＇1＇　weeping；　stuttering；　etc。）；　and　finally；　very　few　men　want　to　show　their　minds　openly　to　their　friends；　so　that　they　see　no　reason　for　co…ordinating　their　symbolic　bodily　expressions。　Nevertheless；　they　do　so；　and　not　since　yesterday；　but　for　thousands　of　years。　Hence　definite　expressions　have　been　transmitted　for　generations　and　have　at　the　same　time　been　constantly　modified；　until　to…day　they　are　altogether　unrecognizable。　Characteristically；　the　desire　to　fool　others　has　also　its　predetermined　limitations；　so　that　it　often　happens　that　simple　and　significant　gestures　contradict　words　when　the　latter　are　false。　E。　g。；　you　hear　somebody　say；　‘‘She　went　down；''　but　see　him　point　at　the　same　time；　not　clearly；　but　visibly；　up。　Here　the　speech　was　false　and　the　gesture　true。　The　speaker　had　to　turn　all　his　attention　on　what　he　wanted　to　say　so　that　the　unwatched　co…consciousness　moved　his　hand　in　some　degree。

A　remarkable　case　of　this　kind　was　that　of　a　suspect　of　child　murder。　The　girl　told　that　she　had　given　birth　to　the　child　all　alone；　had　washed　it；　and　then　laid　it　on　the　bed　beside　herself。　She　had　also　observed　how　a　corner　of　the　coverlet　had　fallen　on　the　child's　face；　and　thought　it　might　interfere　with　the　child's　breathing。　But　at　this　point　she　swooned；　was　unable　to　help　the　child；　and　it　was　choked。　While　sobbing　and　weeping　as　she　was　telling　this　story；　she　spread　the　fingers　of　her　left　hand　and　pressed　it　on　her　thigh；　as　perhaps　she　might　have　done；　if　she　had　first　put　something　soft；　the　corner　of　a　coverlet　possibly；　over　the　child's　nose　and　mouth；　and　then　pressed　on　it。　This　action　was　so　clearly　significant　that　it　inevitably　led　to　the　question　whether　she　hadn't　choked　the　child　in　that　way。　She　assented；　sobbing。

Similar　is　another　case　in　which　a　man　assured　us　that　he　lived　very　peaceably　with　his　neighbor　and　at　the　same　time　clenched　his　fist。　The　latter　meant　illwill　toward　the　neighbor　while　the　words　did　not。

It　need　not；　of　course；　be　urged　that　the　certainty　of　a　belief　will　be　much　endangered　if　too　much　value　is　sanguinely　set　on　such　and　similar　gestures；　when　their　observation　is　not　easy。　There　is　enough　to　do　in　taking　testimony；　and　enough　to　observe；　to　make　it　difficult　to　watch　gestures　too。　Then　there　is　danger　（because　of

＇1＇　H。　Bergson：　Le　Rire。　Paris　1900。

　slight　practice）　of　easily　mistaking　indifferent　or　habitual　gestures　for　significant　ones；　of　supposing　oneself　to　have　seen　more　than　should　have　been　seen；　and　of　making　such　observations　too　noticeable；　in　which　case　the　witness　immediately　controls　his　gestures。　In　short；　there　are　difficulties；　but　once　they　are　surmounted；　the　effort　to　do　so　is　not　regretted。

It　is　to　be　recommended　here；　also；　not　to　begin　one's　studies　with　murder　and　robbery；　but　with　the　simple　cases　of　the　daily　life；　where　there　is　no　danger　of　making　far…reaching　mistakes；　and　where　observations　may　be　made　much　more　calmly。　Gestures　are　especially　powerful　habits　and　almost　everybody　makes　them；　mainly　_*not_　indifferent　ones。　It　is　amusing　to　observe　a　man　at　the　telephone；　his　free　hand　making　the　gestures　for　both。　He　clenches　his　fist　threateningly；　stretches　one　finger　after　another　into　the　air　if　he　is　counting　something；　stamps　his　foot　if　he　is　angry；　and　puts　his　finger　to　his　head　if　he　does　not　understandin　that　he　behaves　as　he　would　if　his　interlocutor　were　before　him。　Such　deep…rooted　tendencies　to　gesture　hardly　ever　leave　us。　The　movements　also　occur　when　we　lie；　and　inasmuch　as　a　man　who　is　lying　at　the　same　time　has　the　idea　of　the　truth　either　directly　or　subconsciously　before　him；　it　is　conceivable　that　this　idea　exercises　much　greater　influence　on　gesture　than　the　probably　transitory　lie。　The　question；　therefore；　is　one　of　intensity；　for　each　gesture　requires　a　powerful　impulse　and　the　more　energetic　is　the　one　t