criminal psychology-第61部分

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n　bare　assertions　into　well…ordered　perceptions　and　real　representations。　But　we　generally　make　the　mistake　of　ascribing　the　variety　of　evidence　to　varying　views；　or　to　dishonesty。

To　establish　the　unanimity　of　such　various　data；　or　to　find　out　whether　they　have　such　unanimity；　is　not　easy。　The　most　comfortable　procedure　is　to　compare　the　lesser　testimonies　with　those　of　the　most　intelligent　of　the　witnesses。　As　a　rule；　anybody　who　has　a　subconscious　perception　of　the　object　will　be　glad　to　bring　it　out　if　he　is　helped　by　some　form　of　expression；　but　the　danger　of　suggestion　is　here　so　great　that　this　assistance　must　be　given　only　in　the　rarest　of　cases。　The　best　thing　is　to　help　the　witness　to　his　full　evidence　gradually；　at　the　same　time　taking　care　not　to　suggest　oneself　and　thus　to　cause　agreement　of　several　testimonies　which　were　really　different　but　only　appeared　to　look　contradictory　on　account　of　the　effect　of　subconscious　perceptions。　The　very　best　thing　is　to　take　the　testimony　as　it　comes；　without　alteration；　and　later　on；　when　there　is　a　great　deal　of　material　and　the　matter　has　grown　clearer；　to　test　the　stuff　carefully　and　to　see　whether　the　less　intelligent　persons　gave　different　testimonies　through　lack　of　capacity　in　expression；　or　because　they　really　had　perceived　different　things　and　had　different　things　to　say。

This　is　important　when　the　witnesses　examined　are　experts　in　the　matter　in　which　they　are　examined。　I　am　convinced　that　the　belief　that　such　people　must　be　the　best　witnesses；　is　false；　at　least　as　a　generalization。　Benneke　（loco　cit。）；　has　also　made　similar　observations。　‘‘The　chemist　who　perceives　a　chemical　process；　the　connoisseur　a　picture；　the　musician　a　symphony；　perceive　them　with　more　vigorous　attention　than　the　layman；　but　the　actual　attention　may　be　greater　with　the　latter。''　For　our　own　affair；　it　is　enough　to　know　that　the　judgment　of　the　expert　will　naturally　be　better　than　that　of　the　layman；　his　apprehension；　however；　is　as　a　rule　one…sided；　not　so　far…reaching　and　less　uncolored。　It　is　natural　that　every　expert；　especially　when　he　takes　his　work　seriously；　should　find　most　interest　in　that　side　of　an　event　with　which　his　　profession　deals。　Oversight　of　legally　important　matters　is；　therefore；　almost　inevitable。　I　remember　how　an　eager　young　doctor　was　once　witness　of　an　assault　with　intent　to　kill。　He　had　seen　how　in　an　inn　the　criminal　had　for　some　time　threatened　his　victim　with　a　heavy　porcelain　match…tray。　‘‘The　os　parietale　may　here　be　broken；''　the　doctor　thought；　and　while　he　was　thinking　of　the　surgical　consequences　of　such　a　blow；　the　thing　was　done　and　the　doctor　had　not　seen　how　the　blow　was　delivered；　whether　a　knife　had　been　drawn　by　the　victim；　etc。　Similarly；　during　an　examination　concerning　breaking　open　the　drawer　of　a　table；　the　worst　witness　was　the　cabinet…maker。　The　latter　was　so　much　interested　in　the　foreign　manner　in　which　the　portions　of　the　drawer　had　been　cemented　and　in　the　curious　wood；　that　he　had　nothing　to　say　about　the　legally　important　question　of　how　the　break　was　made；　what　the　impression　of　the　damaging　tool　was；　etc。　Most　of　us　have　had　such　experiences　with　expert　witnesses；　and　most　of　us　have　also　observed　that　they　often　give　false　evidence　because　they　treat　the　event　in　terms　of　their　own　interest　and　are　convinced　that　things　must　happen　according　to　the　principles　of　their　trades。　However　the　event　shapes　itself；　they　model　it　and　alter　it　so　much　that　it　finally　implies　their　own　apprehension。

‘‘Subconscious　perceptions；''　somewhat　altered；　play　another　rle；　according　to　Exner；　in　so…called　orientation。　If　anybody　is　able　to　orient　himself；　i。　e。；　know　where　he　is　at　any　time　and　keep　in　mind　the　general　direction；　it　is　important　to　be　aware　of　the　fact　when　he　serves　as　witness；　for　his　information　will；　in　consequence；　take　a　different　form　and　assume　a　different　value。　Exner　says　of　himself；　that　he　knows　at　each　moment　of　his　climb　of　the　Marcus'　tower　in　what　direction　he　goes。　As　for　me；　once　I　have　turned　around；　I　am　lost。　Our　perceptions　of　location　and　their　value　would　be　very　different　if　we　had　to　testify　concerning　relations　of　places；　in　court。　But　hardly　anybody　will　assure　the　court　that　in　general　he　orients　himself　well　or　ill。

As　Exner　says；　‘‘If；　when　walking；　I　suddenly　stop　in　front　of　a　house　to　look　at　it；　I　am　definitely　in　possession；　also；　of　the　feeling　of　its　distance　from　where　I　left　the　roadthe　unconscious　perception　of　the　road　beyond　is　here　at　work。''　It　might；　indeed；　be　compared　with　pure　subconsciousness　in　which　series　of　processes　occur　without　our　knowing　it。

But　local　orientation　does　not　end　with　the　feeling　for　place。　It　is　at　work　even　in　the　cases　of　small　memories　of　location；　e。　g。；　　in　learning　things　by　heart；　in　knowing　on　what　page　and　on　what　line　anything　is　printed；　in　finding　unobserved　things；　etc。　These　questions　of　perception…orientation　are　important；　for　there　are　people　all　of　whose　perceptions　are　closely　related　to　their　sense　of　location。　Much　may　be　learned　from　such　people　by　use　of　this　specialty　of　theirs；　while　oversight　thereof　may　render　them　hopeless　as　witnesses。　How　far　this　goes　with　some　peopleas　a　rule　people　with　a　sense　of　location　are　the　more　intelligentI　saw　some　time　ago　when　the　Germanist　Bernhardt　Seuffert　told　me　that　when　he　did　not　know　how　anything　is　spelled　he　imagined　its　appearance；　and　when　that　did　not　help　he　wrote　both　the　forms　between　which　he　was　vacillating　and　then　knew　which　one　was　the　correct　one。　When　I　asked　him　whether　the　chirographic　image　appeared　printed　or　written　and　in　what　type；　he　replied　significantly　enough；　‘‘As　my　writing…teacher　wrote　it。''　He　definitely　localized　the　image　on　his　writing　book　of　many　years　ago　and　read　it　off　in　his　mind。　Such　specialties　must　be　remembered　in　examining　witnesses。

In　conclusion；　there　is　a　word　to　say　concerning　Cattell's＇1＇　investigations　of　the　time　required　for　apprehension。　The　better　a　man　knows　the　language　the　more　rapidly　can　he　repeat　and　read　its　words。　It　is　for　this　reason　that　we　believe　that　foreigners　speak　more　rapidly　than　we。　Cattell　finds　this　so　indubitable；　that　he　wants　to　use　speed　as　a　test　in　the　examinations　in　foreign　languages。


＇1＇　J。　M。　Cattell：　ber　die　Zeit　der　Erkennung　u。　Benemlung　von　Schrift　etc。　（in　Wundt's：　Philosophischen　Studien　II；　1883）。


The　time　used　in　order　to　identify　a　single　letter　is　a　quarter　of　a　second；　the　time　to　pronounce　it　one…tenth　of　a　second。　Colors　and　pictures　require　noticeably　more；　not　because　they　are　not　recognized；　but　because　it　is　necessary　to　think　what　the　right　name　is。　We　are　much　more　accustomed　to　reading　words。

These　observations　might　be　carried　a　step　further。　The　more　definitely　an　event　to　be　described　is　conceived；　the　clearer　the　deduction　and　the　more　certain　the　memory　of　it；　the　more　rapidly　may　it　be　reproduced。　It　follows　that；　setting　aside　individual　idiosyncrasies；　the　rapidity　of　speech　of　a　witness　will　be　of　importance　when　we　want　to　know　how　much　he　has　thought　on　a　question　and　is　certain　what　he　is　going　to　say。　It　is　conceivable　that　a　person　who　is　trying　to　remember　the　event　accurately　will　speak　slowly　and　stutteringly；　or　at　least　with　hesitation　at　the　moment。　The　same　will　occur　if　he　tries　to　conceive　of　various　　possibilities；　to　eliminate　some；　and　to　avoid　contradiction　and　improbability。　If；　however；　the　witness　is　convinced　and　believes　truly　what　he　is　telling；　so　that　he　may　go　over　it　in　his　mind　easily　and　without　interruption；　he　will　tell　his　story　as　quickly　as　he　can。　This　may　indeed　be　observed　in　public　speakers；　even　judges；　prosecutors；　and　defense；　if　anyone　of　them　is　not　clear　with　regard　to　the　case　he　represents；　or　not　convinced　of　its　correctness；　he　will　speak　slowly；　if　the　situation　is　reversed　he　will　speak　rapidly。　Court　and　other　public　stenographers　confirm　this　observation。


Topic　3。　IMAGINATION。　Section　45。

The　things　witnesses　tell　us　have　formerly　existed　in　their　imaginations；　and　the　_*how_　of　this　existence　determines　in　a　large　degree　the　_quale_　of　what　they　offer　us。　Hence；　the　nature　of　imagination　must　be　of　interest　to　us；　and　the　more　so；　as　we　need　not　concern　ourselves　with　the　relation　between　being　and　imagination。　It　may　be　that　things　may　exist　in　forms　quite　different　from　those　in　which　we　know　them；　perhaps　even　in　unknowable　forms。　The　idealist；　according　to　some　authorities；　has　set　this　possibility　aside　and　given　a　scientific　reply　to　those　who　raised　it。

So　far　as　we　lawyers　are　concerned；　the　‘‘scientific　reply''　does　not　matter。　We　are　interested　in　the　reliability　of　the　imagination　and　in　its　identification　with　what　we　assume　to　exist　and　to　occur。　Some　writers　hold　that　sensory　objects　are　in　sense…perception　both　external　and　internal；　external　with　regard　to　each　other；　and　internal　with　regard　to　consciousness。　Attention　is　called　to　the　fact　that　the　distinction　between　image　and　object　constitutes　no　part　of　the　act　of　perception。　But　those　who　remark　this　fact　assume　that　the　act　does　contain　an　image。　According　to　St。　Augustine　the　image　serves　as　the　knowledge　of　the　object；　according　to　Erdmann　the　object　is　the　image　objectified。

Of　great　importance　is　the　substitutional　adequacy　of　images。　E。　g。；　I　imagine　my　absent　dog；　Bismarck's　dog；　whom　I　know　only　pictorially；　and　finally；　the　dog　of　Alcibiades；　whose　appearance　is　known　only　by　the　fact　that　he　was　pretty　and　that　his　master　had　cut　off　his　tail。　In　this　case；　the　representative　value　of　these　images　will　be　definite；　for　everybody　knows　that　I　can　imagine　my　own　dog　very　correctly；　that　the　image　of　Bismarck's　beast　will　also　be　comparatively　good　inasmuch　as　this　animal　has　been　fre…　　quently　pictured　and　described；　while　the　image　of　Alcibiades'　dog　will　want　much　in　the　way　of　reliabilityalthough　I　have　imagined　this　historic　animal　quite　vividly　since　boyhood。　When；　therefore；　I　speak　of　any　one　of　these　three　animals　everybody　will　be　able　properly　to　value　the　correctness　of　my　images　because　he　knows　their　conditions。　When　we　speak　with　a　witness；　however；　we　rarely　know　the