criminal psychology-第73部分

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So　again；　he　reduces　much　supposed　to　have　been　heard；　to　things　that　have　been　read。　Novels　may　make　such　an　impression　that　what　has　been　read　or　described　there　appears　to　have　been　really　experienced。　A　name　or　region　then　seems　to　be　familiar　because　we　have　read　of　something　similar。

It　will　perhaps　be　proper　not　to　reduce　all　the　phenomena　of　paramnesia　to　the　same　conditions。　Only　a　limited　number　of　them　seem　to　be　so　reducible。　Impressions　often　occur　which　one　is　inclined　to　attribute　to　illusory　memory；　merely　to　discover　later　that　they　were　real　but　unconscious　memory；　the　things　had　been　actually　experienced　and　the　events　had　been　forgotten。　So；　for　example；　I　visit　some　region　for　the　first　time　and　get　the　impression　that　I　have　seen　it　before；　and　since　this；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　is　not　the　case；　I　believe　myself　to　have　suffered　from　an　illusion　of　memory。　　Later；　I　perceive　that　perhaps　in　early　childhood　I　had　really　been　in　a　country　that　resembled　this　one。　Thus　my　memory　was　really　correct；　I　had　merely　forgotten　the　experience　to　which　it　referred。

Aside　from　these　unreal　illusions　of　memory；　many；　if　not　all　others；　are　explicable；　as　Sully　indicates；　by　the　fact　that　something　similar　to　what　has　been　experienced；　has　been　read　or　heard；　while　the　fact　that　it　has　been　read　or　heard　is　half　forgotten　or　has　sunk　into　the　subconsciousness。　Only　the　sensation　has　remained；　not　the　recollection　that　it　was　read；　etc。　Another　part　of　this　phenomenon　may　possibly　be　explained　by　vivid　dreams；　which　also　leave　strong　impressions　without　leaving　the　memory　of　their　having　been　dreams。　Whoever　is　in　the　habit　of　dreaming　vividly　will　know　how　it　is　possible　to　have　for　days　a　clear　or　cloudy　feeling　of　the　discovery　of　something　excellent　or　disturbing；　only　to　find　out　later　that　there　has　been　no　real　experience；　only　a　dream。　Such　a　feeling；　especially　the　memory　of　things　seen　or　heard　in　dreams；　may　remain　in　consciousness。　If；　later；　some　similar　matter　is　really　met　with；　the　sensation　may　appear　as　a　past　event。＇1＇　This　is　all　the　easier　since　dreams　are　never　completely　rigid；　but　easily　modeled　and　adaptable；　so　that　if　there　is　the　slightest　approximation　to　similarity；　memory　of　a　dream　lightly　attaches　itself　to　real　experience。


＇1＇　H　Gross's　Archiv　I；　261；　335。


All　this　may　happen　to　anybody；　well　or　ill；　nervous　or　stolid。　Indeed；　Krpelin　asserts　that　paramnesia　occurs　only　under　normal　circumstances。　It　may　also　be　generally　assumed　that　a　certain　fatigued　condition　of　the　mind　or　of　the　body　renders　this　occurrence　more　likely；　if　it　does　not　altogether　determine　it。　So　far　as　self…　observation　throws　any　light　on　the　matter；　this　statement　appears　to　be　correct。　I　had　such　illusions　of　memory　most　numerously　during　the　Bosnian　war　of　occupation　of　1878；　when　we　made　our　terrible　forced　marches　from　Esseg　to　Sarajevo。　The　illusions　appeared　regularly　after　dinner；　when　we　were　quite　tired。　Then　the　region　which　all　my　preceding　life　I　had　not　seen；　appeared　to　be　pleasantly　familiar；　and　when　once；　at　the　very　beginning；　I　received　the　order　to　storm　a　village　occupied　by　Turks；　I　thought　it　would　not　be　much　trouble；　I　had　done　it　so　frequently　and　nothing　had　ever　happened。　At　that　time　we　were　quite　exhausted。　Even　when　we　had　entered　the　otherwise　empty　village　this　extraordinary　circumstance　did　not　impress　me；　and　I　thought　that　the　inside　of　　a　village　always　looked　like　thatalthough　I　had　never　before　seen　such　a　Turkish　street…hotel　‘‘in　nature''　or　pictured。

Another　mode　of　explanation　may　be　mentioned；　i。　e。；　explanation　by　heredity。　Hering＇1＇　and　Sully　have　dealt　with　it。　According　to　the　latter；　especially；　we　may　think　that　we　have　undergone　some　experience　that　really　belongs　to　some　ancestor。　Sully　believes　that　this　contention　can　not　be　generically　contradicted　because　a　group　of　skilled　activities　（nest…building；　food…seeking；　hiding　from　the　enemy；　migration；　etc。）　have　been　indubitably　inherited　from　the　animals；　but　on　the　other　hand；　that　paramnesia　is　inherited　memory　can　be　proved　only　with；　e。　g。；　a　child　which　had　been　brought　up　far　from　the　sea　but　whose　parents　and　grandparents　had　been　coast…dwellers。　If　that　child　should　at　first　sight　have　the　feeling　that　he　is　familiar　with　the　sea；　the　inheritance　of　memory　would　be　proved。　So　long　as　we　have　not　a　larger　number　of　such　instances　the　assumption　of　hereditary　influence　is　very　suggestive　but　only　probable。


＇1＇　E。　Hering：　ber　das　Gedchtnis；　etc。　Vienna　1876。


With　regard　to　the　bearing　of　memory…illusions　on　criminal　cases　I　shall　cite　only　one　possible　instance。　Somebody　just　waking　from　sleep　has　perceived　that　his　servant　is　handling　his　purse　which　is　lying　on　the　night…table；　and　in　consequence　of　the　memory…illusion　he　believes　that　he　has　already　observed　this　many　times　before。　The　action　of　the　servant　was　perhaps　harmless　and　in　no　way　directed　toward　theft。　Now　the　evidence　of　the　master　is　supposed　to　demonstrate　that　this　has　repeatedly　occurred；　then　perhaps　no　doubt　arises　that　the　servant　has　committed　theft　frequently　and　has　had　the　intention　of　doing　so　this　time。

To　generalize　this　situation　would　be　to　indicate　that　illusions　of　memory　are　always　likely　to　have　doubtful　results　when　they　have　occurred　only　once　and　when　the　witness　in　consequence　of　paramnesia　believes　the　event　to　have　been　repeatedly　observed。　It　is　not　difficult　to　think　of　numbers　of　such　cases　but　it　will　hardly　be　possible　to　say　how　the　presence　of　illusions　of　memory　is　to　be　discovered　without　the　knowledge　_*that_　they　exist。

When　we　consider　all　the　qualities　and　idiosyncrasies　of　memory；　this　so　varied　function　of　the　mind；　we　must　wonder　that　its　estimation　in　special　cases　is　frequently　different；　although　proceeding　from　a　second　person　or　from　the　very　owner　of　the　questionable　memory。　Sully　finds　rightly；　that　one　of　the　keenest　tricks　in　fighting　deep…　　rooted　convictions　is　to　attack　the　memory　of　another　with　regard　to　its　reliability。　Memory　is　the　private　domain　of　the　individual。　From　the　secret　council…chamber　of　his　own　consciousness；　into　which　no　other　may　enter；　it　draws　all　its　values。

The　case　is　altered；　however；　when　a　man　speaks　of　his　personal　memory。　It　must　then　assume　all　the　deficiencies　which　belong　to　other　mental　powers。　We　lawyers；　especially；　hear　frequently　from　witnesses：　‘‘My　memory　is　too　weak　to　answer　this　question；''　‘‘Since　receiving　the　wound　in　question　my　memory　has　failed；''　‘‘I　am　already　too　old；　my　memory　is　leaving　me；''　etc。　In　each　of　these　cases；　however；　it　is　not　the　memory　that　is　at　fault。　As　a　matter　of　fact　the　witness　ought　to　have　said　‘‘I　am　too　stupid　to　answer　this　question；''　‘‘Since　the　wound　in　question；　my　intellectual　powers　have　failed；''　‘‘I　am　already　old；　I　am　growing　silly；''　etc。　But　of　course　no　one　will；　save　very　rarely；　underestimate　his　good　sense；　and　it　is　more　comfortable　to　assign　its　deficiencies　to　the　memory。　This　occurs　not　only　in　words　but　also　in　construction。　If　a　man　has　incorrectly　reproduced　any　matter；　whether　a　false　observation；　or　a　deficient　combination；　or　an　unskilled　interpretation　of　facts；　he　will　not　blame　these　things　but　will　assign　the　fault　to　memory。　If　he　is　believed；　absolutely　incorrect　conclusions　may　result。


Section　56。　（e）　Mnemotechnique。

Just　a　few　words　concerning　mnemotechnique；　mnemonic；　and　anamnestic。　The　discovery　of　some　means　of　helping　the　memory　has　long　been　a　human　purpose。　From　Simonides　of　Chios；　to　the　Sophist　Hippias　of　Elis；　experiments　have　been　made　in　artificial　development　of　the　memory；　and　some　have　been　remarkably　successful。　Since　the　middle　ages　a　large　group　of　people　have　done　this。　We　still　have　the　figures　of　the　valid　syllogisms　in　logic；　like　Barbara；　etc。　The　rules　for　remembering　in　the　Latin　grammar；　etc。；　may　still　be　learned　with　advantage。　The　books　of　Kothe　and　others；　have；　in　their　day；　created　not　a　little　discussion。

As　a　rule；　modern　psychology　pays　a　little　attention　to　memory　devices。　In　a　certain　sense；　nobody　can　avoid　mnemonic；　for　whenever　you　tie　a　knot　in　your　handkerchief；　or　stick　your　watch　into　your　pocket　upside　down；　you　use　a　memory　device。　Again；　whenever　you　want　to　bear　anything　in　mind　you　reduce　difficulties　and　bring　some　kind　of　order　into　what　you　are　trying　to　retain。　

Thus；　some　artificial　grip　on　the　object　is　applied　by　everybody；　and　the　utility　and　reliability　of　this　grip　determines　the　trustworthiness　of　a　man's　memory。　This　fact　may　be　important　for　the　criminal　lawyer　in　two　ways。　On　the　one　hand；　it　may　help　to　clear　up　misunderstandings　when　false　mnemonic　has　been　applied。　Thus；　once　somebody　called　an　aniline　dye；　which　is　soluble　in　water　and　is　called　‘‘nigrosin；''　by　the　name　‘‘moorosin；''　and　asked　for　it　under　that　name　in　the　store。　In　order　to　aid　his　memory　he　had　associated　it　with　the　word　for　black　man　=　niger　=　negro　=　moor；　and　thus　had　substituted　moor　for　nigro　in　the　construction　of　the　word　he　wanted。　Again；　somebody　asked　for　the　‘‘Duke　Salm''　or　the　‘‘Duke　Schmier。''　The　request　was　due　to　the　fact　that　in　the　Austrian　dialect　_salve_　is　pronounced　like　salary　and　the　colloquial　for　‘‘salary''　is　‘‘schmier''　（to　wipe）。　Dr。　Ernst　Lohsing　tells　me　that　he　was　once　informed　that　a　Mr。　Schnepfe　had　called　on　him；　while；　as　a　matter　of　fact　the　gentleman's　name　was　Wachtel。　Such　misunderstandings；　produced　by　false　mnemonic；　may　easily　occur　during　the　examination　of　witnesses。　They　are　of　profound　significance。　If　once　you　suspect　that　false　memory　has　been　in　play；　you　may　arrive　at　the　correct　idea　by　using　the　proper　synonyms　and　by　considering　similarly…pronounced　words。　If　attention　is　paid　to　the　determining　conditions　of　the　special　case；　success　is　almost　inevitable。

The　second　way　in　which　false　mnemotechnique　is　important　is　that　in　which　the　technique　was　correct；　but　in　which　the　key　to　the　system　has　been　lost；　i。　e。；　the　witness　has　forgotten　how　he　proceeded。　Suppose；　for　example；　that　I　need　to　recall　the　relation　of　the　ages　of　three　people　to　each　other。　Now；　if　I　observe　that　M　is　the　oldest；　N　the　mid